Popular Science

Bug Comme drones robotisés Devenir Plus Bug-Like, aux yeux exorbités et Tiny, les poils de détection

2011-10-03T13:05:00.000-07:00

Micro véhicules aériens, ou MAV, faire une option alléchante pour les agences de renseignement et de surveillance qui cherchent à recueillir des informations subrepticement ou de livrer des dispositifs de surveillance sans être vu. Mais MAV - généralement calquée petits oiseaux ou des insectes - sont notoirement instables en vol et difficile à manœuvrer dans des environnements encombrés. Ainsi, le Pentagone est à distribuer des contrats de recherche pour rendre le DoD petits bogues robotiques plus stable en les rendant plus bug-like. Plus précisément, le DoD veut de grands yeux exorbités et bug ailes poilues pour sa MAV.

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Le principal problème avec MAV a à voir avec la façon dont ils réagissent (ou ne répondent pas) à des environnements dynamiques - des choses comme déplacer ou rafales des vents, corps en mouvement, et d'autres variables qui doivent être comptabilisées en temps réel. MAV sont minuscules, donc il n'y a pas beaucoup d'espace pour les actifs informatiques ou de charges utiles du capteur, et cela mène à une sorte de problème insoluble: comment peut-ingénieurs font ces choses plus petites et plus capable, tout en ajoutant une sensibilisation accrue de la situation et de mieux en vol de traitement ?

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Lorsque confrontés à un problème difficile comme celle-ci une petite biomimétisme ne blesse jamais, et c'est exactement là où le Pentagone est à la recherche de ses récents contrats. Si deux allocations de recherche a récemment rendu sont une indication, la micro-drones du futur peut-être de minuscules poils ressemblant à des capteurs sur tout leur corps et de grands yeux composés.

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Les poils des cils semblables serviront à maintenir les drones en vol stationnaire et vol stable en détectant les changements dans les flux d'air à la moindre niveau. Cela signifie que le drone pouvait sentir une rafale de vent arrive juste avant qu'il arrive, lui permettant de compenser le changement de circonstances. Il serait également une aide dans le maintien de la stabilité globale au cours du vol, comme le processeur central de MAV posséderait une conscience constante de - et la capacité à manipuler - le débit de la couche limite d'air entourant le drone comme il plane et les mouches.

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Le bug comme des yeux composés seraient également aider MAVs naviguer dans des espaces encombrés en augmentant la quantité de données visuelles disponibles pour les processeurs les drones. Un mini-ordinateur de bord serait de traiter les images en temps réel, en utilisant ces repères visuels pour éviter automatiquement les obstacles et de naviguer proprement et efficacement.

Pour combattre le réchauffement, le Plan Britanniques à lancer un énorme ballon et Pipe vraiment long

2011-10-03T11:54:00.000-07:00

Quand la plupart des gens pensent de simuler un volcan, ils pensent de bicarbonate de soude, le vinaigre, et en troisième années des projets de foire scientifique. Une équipe de chercheurs britanniques pensent davantage le long des lignes d'un ballon géant de la taille d'un stade de football et un tuyau d'arrosage de 12 mile qui peut chimiques tuyau dans la stratosphère afin de ralentir le réchauffement climatique. Et eux, envisagent de tester leur hypothèse bientôt, Aore envoyant une version réduite de leur ciel-de-chausses-ballon-chose dans le ciel prochains mois.

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Elle, AOS une tentative audacieuse de jolies géo-ingénierie, et qui pourrait très bien ne pas fonctionner. L'idée est de reproduire l'effet que les volcans ont quand ils éclatent, le pompage de toutes sortes de particules dans la stratosphère, qui aide à réfléchir le rayonnement solaire de retour dans l'espace. Et tout en utilisant un ballon et un long tronçon de tuyau pour créer un volcan artificiel peut sembler un peu, scientifique Äúmad, l'UA, le gouvernement britannique est à bord, mettant plus de 2,5 millions $ derrière le projet. La Royal Society soutient cette.

Vidéo: Nanorockets pourrait fournir la drogue dans le corps

2011-10-03T10:42:00.000-07:00

Pour la première fois, les chercheurs utilisent un interféromètre atomique pour mesurer l'accélération Aircraft

2011-10-03T04:03:00.000-07:00

Interféromètres atomiques sont propres petits appareils qui exploitent les caractères d'onde d'atomes pour faire des mesures très précises des choses comme la distance et ou la force de gravité. Mais parce qu'ils sont inconstants par nature - même les plus petites vibrations fausser leurs résultats - interféromètres atomiques ont été essentiellement limitées à des expériences très contrôlées qui ont lieu soit dans des laboratoires souterrains ou dans la chute libre Zero-G expériences. Mais une équipe de chercheurs français a annoncé aujourd'hui la première utilisation d'un interféromètre atomique pour mesurer l'accélération d'un avion.

Vidéo: AlphaDog DARPA se lève, Scrambles sur les rochers et Runs

2011-10-03T02:37:00.000-07:00

British Science Society

2011-02-13T08:39:00.000-08:00

British Science Society (formerly BA), the community where people from all walks of life access to information on the development of understanding and commitment.

Our goal is to combine science with people: the promotion of transparency in science and society recognize the great power of science through participation in cultural life and encouragement for adults and young people directly to the science and technology and their effects.

Founded in 1831, the British Association science organization of important initiatives in the United Kingdom, including British Science Festival week, the Natural Sciences and Engineering, the balance of regional and local events as well as the full program youth in schools and universities.

The Association of British Science organization established by Royal Charter and regulated by the government to form a government. It is a charity registered by the Commission (number 212479) and the Office of the authority of the Scottish Charity (number SCO39236).

British Association of Science maintains a professional team of about 30 people at the office building national Welcome Wolfson, South Kensington, and 5 regional representatives in the United Kingdom. 16 Department of Science and the British Association, which promotes mainly the British Annual Science Festival, run by volunteers. This is the 30 or so branches have organized events and activities in England.

CEO message

Since its launch in January 2009 at the British Association for Science and the reaction from fans of other organizations have been very positive. Everyone is quick to adopt and approve the name change and many of us welcome the new identity.

From the moment we decided by the British Association of Science, a new name, we chose to avoid abbreviations or initials. Indeed, the experience of the confusion caused by the old name, and because the Working total area acronyms and abbreviations. many of them vague and confusing for the layman (although we recognize that the use of the time myself!).

Since clear communication is the key to our mission and we are trying to reach the widest audience possible, always insist that we speak of the British Association of Science - a unit.

British Science Association, registered charity No. SCO39236, 479 and 212.

Surface Engineering Development

2010-11-17T02:36:00.000-08:00

Surface engineering development charismaticalli are very friendly and the critique of modern society. Several examples of this type of surface engineering applications in commercial art, design, color, painting, engineering inside the house.

The main area of practice described in Science incarving various objects on the surface, like a tattoo, and have many other projects are often seen on the surface of the body. The increasing trend of such practices in society, especially among younger generations, to the conclusion that surface engineering is a source of joy and satisfaction.

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There are probably many factors in the popularization of science areas. The number one factor is that the best parts of most and are freely available either from the human body, or access to natural resources, and without any pretreatment rekuist. The desired design can be applied.

The number two is that the surfaces are visible, both you and the recipient of science or outer surface of the protected objects.

Therefore, an investment in these activities account for the rapid and visible. Therefore, these factors contribute to other inventions, such as counters vision econoburette survismeter Man Singh.

This is very useful for raw materials from the University of surface micro approach to green chemistry. But the tattoos, and similar to human skin, a side effect retire, saying the action mechansim very biocompatible.

Even those aspects of space science, the skin has its own dynamic equilibrium between the outer surface of the skin and keeps the skin from the inside.

It is a natural process, but when the additional tax paid on the skin surface that maybe some of thermodynamics, which will affect physicians and skin specialists, etc analyze

You can design a biothermodinamics interest in implementing and evaluating its significance in relation to the events in tattoos and the like. Maybe some sections to give satisfaction to dominate the surface engineering of human events.

London: Psychics in Science Fiction

2010-11-05T13:24:00.000-07:00

Famous writers like Agatha Christie mysteries has written many novels clairvoyant, or a story inspired by the famous psychic. Famous writers have used the length of the various techniques discussed performing a wide range of readers. Psychics have more power to distinguish them from others. These are the main characteristics of a fortune-teller. Psychics and special rights as hyperactive especially its ability to extra sensory perception. Psychics sense of the world a little differently than most people. Psychics minutes notice things about everyday life, most people do not miss a single day.
Viewers are not only difficult, it makes very nature, more reserves for self-selection. Diviners, by nature, feel they are much more than others. It is this psychological characteristic that makes it as a mysterious personality. This is mainly because of what science fiction is in the country has the famous psychics flourish everywhere. Healers have an important role in science fiction and fiction has played for centuries. Psychics have also appeared fairly regularly in comics and graphic novels. Marvel is pretty well known telepathic or psychic who goes by the name of Jean Grey. A prominent writer of science fiction, Stephen King has a lot of novels about the famous and readers who wrote Dead Zone.
Many people rely on their unusual clairvoyant wisdom and power, still less of all evils. Astrologer and seer of the soil in place a panel folded. They are a clean industry, success in this industry. This industry is supported by the faithful around the world and the good performance of this sector is to believe in the ability of people to the practice of psychiatry as a method of treatment is based.

London Removals - List of the Best Companies

2010-10-22T01:43:00.000-07:00

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Very Good London Universities

2010-08-28T06:30:00.000-07:00

The rise of Peronism

2010-03-05T10:30:00.000-08:00

GONZALEZ, Oscar Pablo / Fernandez, Horacio.

"A political movement is not simply an expression of misery and pain, its existence is characterized by a belief common to many, who articulates a political solution to the misery and political diagnosis of their causes" (1)

As posed Gareth S. Jones on political movements, this is an essay that tries to deepen the relationship between the international situation and socio-political development in our country in the first half of the 1940s. In the relationship between growth of the labor movement, the Peronist political expression and the Second World War.

We try to discern the mechanisms that led to such tremendous polarization between who was the U.S. ambassador in our country and a colonel in the Argentine Army, summarized in the slogan Braden or Peron.

Was there interference from the United States in the 1946 elections?

What is the role Braden in the formation of the Democratic Union?

As posed by some authors, is the abuse of intervention ultimately favors ambassador to the electoral victory of the formula of the Labor Party formed by Perón-Quijano?

As shown have placed the focus of the work on the historical-political rather than on a sociological interpretation.

INTRODUCTION

In the introduction we will sketch the outlines of the three aspects that we integrate for the job:

a) A vision of the working class, especially from the import substitution phase, which will be one of the pillars of Peronism.

b) A summary of the most important events that occur after 1930, with the overthrow of the Hipólito Yrigoyen, by the Armed Forces.

c) An overview of the international situation, especially since the outbreak of the Second World War (1939-1945).

LABOR MOVEMENT

The labor movement has been defined as the backbone of Peronism, but what were the characteristics of the movement in the 1940s? During the 30s produced qualitative and quantitative changes in it.

From a quantitative point of view, in the early years of the decade, shows the numerical growth of the working class as a result of industrialization through import substitution. The cities of Buenos Aires and Rosario are the migratory flow mainly from the provinces of Northwest, Northeast and Cuyo.

The newcomers join the labor in emerging industries. It acts as a major factor in this process, the crisis of internal economies, combined with the attraction of the industrializing process.

As we can see qualitative ideological changes in the labor movement: note especially two;

1) A growing tendency toward political participation, accompanied by a new attitude toward the state.

2nd) increased identification with the movement's national problem.

To understand these changes in consciousness remember that the first two currents that hegemony to labor between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, are anarchism and socialism. The first argued, among other principles, the absolute repudiation of the political-institutional participation. An example that do not form or participate in any political party and boycott the elections.

Socialists instead articulate the struggle from labor organizations with political and institutional participation through the Socialist Party.

In 1903 the Guild Socialism suffers a split: the current call pure or revolutionary syndicalist union born with a critical stance regarding the political-institutional participation, approaching in some poses to current anarchist. This also suffers from divisions during the 1910s, an emerging moderda wing pro-settlement with the state.

In 1922 he founded the U.S.A. (Union Sindical Argentina). In this new plant has the current unionist majority share in it the Communists and Socialists. The latter in the following years and founded his own retreat center COA and communists are expelled.

In 1930 the socialist trade unions and created the General Labor Confederation (CGT). This new organization would be divided a few years later.

This long string of mergers, breakups, alliances and new breaks makes the 1943 coup, find a labor movement that lacks a single central trade union organization.

Before further progress should remember that the relationship between the labor movement and the state ranged from fighting and subsequent repression as in the case of the Tragic Week in 1919 and the great strike of the Province of Santa Cruz in 1921 - until acceptance State arbitration role in some specific claims conflicts during the 1930s. Turning to the situation of the labor movement in 1943, two trade union confederations are vying for leadership: CGT No. 1 and C.G.T. No. 2.

According to Matsushita:

"While No. 1 was characterized by its tendency to independence of the labor movement regarding political parties, especially the Communist Party's No. 2 was characterized by its inclination to link the labor movement and politics." (2)

Facing the revolution of June 4, 1943 the two CGT, adopt similar positions. Received favorably on the military government and various press releases criticizing the government agree to Castillo.

The axis of the statements focus on economic policy, quite unfavorable to workers (legislation, wages, cost of living), the systematic use of electoral fraud and violation of civil liberties. Another important axis is the union claims corruption in all spheres of the deposed government.

The labor movement, as noted earlier, is to identify with the national problem in the 1930s through the criticism of the Roca-Runciman laws of coordination of transport, privatization at the hands of foreign companies for some services municipal labor movement will lead to demands to include anti-imperialist struggle in their programs.

From another angle of history and sociology has approached the study of the hypothetical division of the working class of Argentina, from import substitution industrialization and the resulting internal migrants, older workers and new workers. We believe that this debate has been overtaken by current historiography.

POLITICAL SITUATION

One of the characterizations of the period from 1930 to 1943 in our country is the name of "Infamous Decade" and is one of the fundamental causes that justify the coup of June 1943.

The political prestige reached at that moment is so vast that it is beyond the scope of this work, but we can not fail to mention some of the salient facts that impact on society:

Economically:

a) Roca-Runciman
b) Creation of the Central Bank
c) Regulatory Boards
d) Loan unlock
e) Transport Corporation

Business Research:

a) Bureau of meat. (Research by Lisandro de la Torre - The murder of Enzo Bordabehere).
b) The purchase of land in El Palomar.
c) Commission Opinion Rodriguez Conde by bribes paid to the extension of concessions to power companies.
d) Negotiated with the purchase of armaments in the 1920s - (Being involved the president Agustín P. Justo).

Politically:

a) Electoral fraud
b) political scandals.

INTERNATIONAL SITUATION

Assuming ethnic population in Argentina, because of the immigration flow from the late nineteenth century and the beginning of this, the events unfolding in the world especially in Europe, have great impact on our society.

Hence the emergence of fascism in the 1920s and Nazism in the 1930s, will not be indifferent to the society in Argentina. The culmination of this process will be the Spanish civil war (1936-39) that will lead to an alignment on either side population and a confrontation within the Spanish community.

In the development of World War II we will look at different times that will redirect the various forces, both the external and the internal. Rather than shift will be abrupt changes such as the move from a position of neutrality to outright involvement in the conflict.

a) The first point is located from the invasion of Poland by Germany 01/09/1939 until 22/06/1941 when it invaded Russia. We need to note that the date of commencement of War is formal, as both Germany and Italy had openly intervened in the Spanish Civil War to support Francisco Franco had already been finalized and the occupation of Czechoslovakia by Hitler and Mussolini in Albania, so no one could doubt his intentions.

b) A second instance is developed from the entry into the conflict in Russia until the 07/12/1941 which is made the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor that will mean the entry of the United States to the fight-two years after that had been initiated. At this stage in the local political scene we see a change in position of some organizations (influenced or directed by the Argentine Communist Party) that a press pass staunch neutrality internally by Argentina's participation in the Allied camp.

c) The third period we can narrow down from 07/12/1941 until the end of strife between May and August 1945, upon detonation by U.S. atomic bombs on two Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. With the initiation of this period is to give the final shape of the two blocks, first the allies (U.S., Britain, France and Russia) and on the other axis (Germany, Italy and Japan).

From this moment we see a pressure increasing on the part of States Uniods to all Latin American countries for entry into the conflict. On this last point we need to mention and clarify some historiographical concepts regarding the neutrality maintained by our country until almost the end of the war.

Since 1939-beginning of the conflict-Argentina opens a letter of credit to Britain and increase the delivery of our products that you just arrive without any problems for neutrality maintained by our country.

As he puts Sergio Bagú:

"A powerful ally had then, behind the scenes the Argentine regime. It was the United Kingdom. What the government did with Castillo send meat and grain to bulk credit and it was enough for now. The break with the axis, however, not only would disrupt or diminish these shipments, but would put the country squarely within the orbit as Pan and rush had already begun painfully: the liquidation of British investments and their transfer to the hands Americans "(3)

As seen what is at the heart of the matter is an inter-imperialist conflict. Another historian Díaz Araujo, outlines the following:

"Because it's true this is the touchstone of the matter: the castle was not neutral but pro-Nazi Anglophile" (4)

To conclude this point we took other side as Michelangelo Scenna historiography, which says: "Foreign Policy in 1941, Castillo was the logical extreme of the Roca-Runciman. By no means was pro-Nazi and was accused at the time but excessively pro-British. Rather than an expression of nationalism, was the last aspect of colonialism. " (5)

We believe that from this analysis it is clear that the great support from Argentina's neutrality during the entire second World War, is Britain.

This is the international situation occurs when the Revolution of 1943 in our country.

DEVELOPMENT

With the military coup on June 4, 1943 opened a period of political transition in Argentina.

We will not expose in this paper the various versions historiography on the government's attempt Rawlings fails to swear and the coup within the coup that hovers Ramirez. We like poses that Diaz Araujo:

"The reasons for international or domestic policy now or then argued look like mere excuses to cover up the stark struggle for power" (6)

We must emphasize that this blatant power struggle also occurs in the GOU (Group of United Officers) military lodge that is the driving force behind the coup of June which we mention but do not go for not being part of our goal.

With the new government headed by General Pedro Pablo Ramirez, Argentina, continues to maintain a neutral position in the war despite mounting pressures to the contrary by the United States.

Regarding domestic politics on 27 November 1943 creates a new agency, the Ministry of Labor and Welfare, and was named to head the same Colonel John D. Peron, from this position begins to make itself known, taking some of the key concerns of the emerging workforce that continues to grow, now in greater numbers by the conjuncture of global conflict.

A premise of the new secretary of Labor and Welfare, was to enforce the laws, most of them socialist origin, but not applied or did half. Otherwise extend the range of application within the territory as the mills Tucuman and Salta, the quebrachales of Chaco, Corrientes and Misiones yerbatales where it undergoes delegations of the Secretariat to ensure compliance.

Some of the most important decree-laws enacted were:

Law 23,852, "Professional Associations" that gave the majority union union status of each trade.

Law 31,665, Retirement, by which the pension scheme was extended to virtually all workers in the country. With the enactment of this law gave rise to the first mass rally in which Peron spoke to a large number of workers in front of the Secretariat, on 4 December 1944. The event was organized by Angel Borlenghi, president of the Second Ordinary Congress of the CGT and Secretary of Commerce Employees Union, one of the most important leaders of the socialist trade unionism.

Law 28164, the famous "Statute of Pawn" from 1815 in that the side of the Province of Buenos Aires, condemned to every individual of the campaign to serve under a master, had not legislated on industrial relations in the Argentine countryside. The minimum wage, Sunday rest, vacation, severance and other paragraphs break with the paternalistic relationship with their peons rancher.

Law 32,347, which was formalized by the Labor Court, by which they set the rules and cumbersome procedures for compliance with labor laws.

These are some of the measures taken by the Ministry of Labor and apart from the agreements signed between employers and workers, where the state as an arbitrator award in favor of employees.

As posed Carlos S. Fayt:

"... was unquestionable that social improvements were the result of worker participation, that these improvements will benefit the working class and the opposition forces employers to these improvements and helped to define benefits for Peron's support of most of the leaders. They, thereafter, acted to defend convinced that Peron and the Secretary of Labor truly defending the interests of the working class. " (7)

Apart from labor laws, a measure that drove Peron was the fall and then freezing of rents by Decree 6141/44, which increased rapidly in popularity.

Meanwhile the U.S. pressures continue to increase for Argentina to break relations with the axis, especially after Chile, another who resisted, broke off relations in early 1943.

One of the actions proposed by Cordell Hull, Secretary of State, U.S. President T. Roosevelt was to provide modern weapons and large quantities to Brazil, to pressure the Argentine government.

In February 1944 Ramirez away from the presidency and is replaced by General E. Farrell, for which there is increased pressure.

As posed Alberto Ciria:

"... United States, in a change of tactics, refused to recognize (...) On June 22, 1944 United States called its ambassador to Washington Norman Armor. The Argentine government contends doing the same with Adrian Escobar, our ambassador to the North country traveling back to Buenos Aires. The State Department takes this opportunity to suggest to the other Latin American republics to withdraw their ambassadors accredited in Argentina within a fortnight. On 23 June 1944, the United States recognizes the Bolivian government "purged" of their guilt and Nazis. Argentina is the ultimate outcast.

On 15 August 1944 the U.S. government took the step that had long advocated Treasury Secretary Morgenthau: froze the gold reserves of Argentina in the United States. It banned the American merchant vessels touched Argentine ports, and extensive restrictions were applied to exports that were made to the Republic of Silver ". (8)

In domestic political terms, on December 31, 1943, has released a decree that provides for the dissolution of political parties also decreed compulsory religious education in Catholic primary schools and secondary schools throughout the country, leaving aside the tradition of secular education in force since 1884 -. Alongside these measures were stepped University named to head the various houses of studies to outstanding men of the clerical fraternity.

In early 1944 an earthquake in the province of San Juan and the "public collection" is performed becoming known beyond her acting work, the figure of Maria Eva Duarte.

Occur within the various military government infighting, the military sectors opposed to Colonel Peron did not sit idle as this, with Farrell's rise to the presidency passes to the post of Minister of War on February 26, 1944 and July 7 that year, the Vice President also retaining his post as Secretary of Labor and Welfare. We counted within these struggles the abortive attempt of Lt. Col. Thomas A. Duco.

When released to Paris by the allies, he made some statements of support led by the traditional political parties despite the dissolution decree.

Summing up the steps of the coup on 4 June 1943, after a year of being in office we can see great progress in the social field through the laws given in the labor force and a decline in the field prohibitions and political interventions.

The opposition starts a nuclear around slogans that relate to the war, and accusations of Nazism began to military rule combining the preaching of the traditional parties on civil liberties with incredible pressure from the United States to break off relations with the axis.

Some historians wonder, what happens in this moment with the political parties that raised the flags of social gains, as the Socialist Party and the Communist Party. What counts is the political and historical conjuncture mark orientation: all the support the camp of the allies. Based on this situation we see situations that seem incredible historical evolution, from 1941 U.S.

pressure on governments in the rest of America to establish diplomatic and economic relations with the USSR, on the other hand gives full support to the CTAL (Confederation of Latin American Workers) led by the Communists. In this aspect, Spanish historian José Luis Rubio poses:

"But the American support for C.T.A.L. is not without something in return very high, so high that it could be said without exaggeration that the Communists in the CTAL then were the "useful idiots", the "fellow travelers" of U.S. imperialism. The C.T.A.L. -Communist parties and all pro-Moscow official, adopt a position contrary to national and popular movements-oligarchic and anti-imperialists "of the moment (...) were in Argentina, with the pro-imperialist oligarchy against the masses in day of October 17, 1945 (...) In Bolivia Villarroel-driver were against union miners and the awareness of the indigenous population, and a man who tried to control the tin-mining companies who hung of a bluff in an uprising "fascist" who joined the Communists with representatives of the "thread" oligarchic. (...) The C.T.A.L. adopts a position contrary to all social movements claim undertaken by workers from domestic firms or foreign. Condemns all strikes (...) All work aspirations must be sacrificed to the war effort against fascism. " (9)

The Argentine isolation grows, the Farrell government is not recognized by the United States, the vast majority of Latin American embassies were empty by the withdrawal of ambassadors, following the directives of the U.S. State Department. In this situation we add the 'sport of self-exile "held by political opponents, Miguel A. Scenna adds:

"Nicolas Repeto (high socialist leader) writes honestly about his memoir," I left Buenos Aires on its own determination at that time because nobody threatened or persecuted "continues to pose Scenna:" Not many, because it says there were twenty Repetto (...) more or less founded companies, one of which, of course, was called "Association de Mayo" with the clear historical and emotional connection that wanted to link with the exiles of Roses and formed a Board of Exiles, where the Repetto it represented the Socialist Party, the Democratic Progressive Julian Noble, Agustin Rodriguez Araya Radical Civic Union, José Aguirre House conservatives and Rodolfo Ghioldi communism. No one was absent. (10)

As you can see this "Board of Exiles" is the cornerstone of the future "Democratic Union", had settled in Montevideo and will issue a memo to all peoples of the Americas to work with the restoration of democratic rule in the Argentina. As Scenna says:

"That is, a warm invitation to intervene in the internal affairs Argentines" (11)

In January 1945 consumed the last attempt of Germany in the battlefield in western Saarland and failed in Bostogne in the East one hundred and eighty Soviet divisions break through Poland and on January 27, crossed the Oder River by foot in Germany two hundred miles from Berlin.

In the Pacific front Americans landed on Luzon and the British advance into Burma. The shaft is falling apart.

In Italy Mussolini was shot by Italian partisans in late April, in early May and Hitler committed suicide on the morning of May 7 Germany signs unconditional surrender. The last shots of this race is going to hear in the Pacific in late May and all that remained was the invasion of Japan.

In these circumstances one of the allies, the United States makes the decision to first use of atomic energy and the August 6, 1945 throws the bomb at Hiroshima, repeating the operation three days launching its second atomic bomb on Nagasaki. U.S. is showing the international community that is the hegemonic power at the end of World War II.

Politically, the allies are promoting the creation of the United Nations, an international organization whose theoretical goal would the peaceful resolution of international conflicts.

Argentina to join the United Nations declares war on March 27, 1945 to the shaft. From that moment fully normalized diplomatic relations with the countries of America.

In early July, Farrell formally undertakes to quickly call elections absolutely free. In August he lifts the state of siege that motivates the return of exiles from Montevideo had already standardized the University auditors government withdrawing from them.

In May the diplomatic normalization scene appears in the new United States ambassador, Spruille Braden.

With the arrival of Braden, the diplomatic relations that were coming to a rapid normalization, as Argentina had signed the minutes of Chapultepec-Mexico-(Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace), declared war on the axis and marginalizing the elements pro-Nazi by resignation or removal from office, they will quickly blur, his behavior will be characteristic of a viceroy arrived in the domain of a king of divine origin.

Braden is worth noting that in his long career both in the political arena or as a representative of the Rockefeller interests in Latin America was not characterized by respect for the sovereignty of Latin Americans. The ambassador had already left his mark on the Bolivian-Paraguayan war in the 1930s safeguarding the interests of Standard Oil, also led the campaign against the government of Lázaro Cárdenas when he nationalized the Mexican oil in 1936. A subsequent passage by Argentina, and in the 1950s, we see him leading the campaign against the government of Jacobo Arbenz in Guatemala (12)

Amid protests from the Argentine government, Braden travels inside the country criticizing the government, his reply was:

"... that as the U.S. ambassador in Argentina was credited both to the Argentine people and with the Argentine government "(13)

Viceroy ambassador become the great defender of democracy will make rapid progress through nuclear around the opposition political parties, is the binding element of the future "Democratic Union", which depicts the most dissimilar Argentina's social structure, from the Conservative Party through the Radical to the Communist Party including the Rural Society, the Board of Trade, the Industrial Union of Argentina and the Chamber of Commerce.

On June 16 appears before the public a manifesto of industrialists and trade which came out against the government's social policy and oppose the conquests of the workers.

In response to this pressure, thousands of workers congregate on July 12, 1945 against the Ministry of Labor and, in this mobilization also involved non-Peronist trade unions.

As we see in the middle of 45, however, two well-defined fields in Argentina society, first of all working-class radicalism sectors Irigoyenism (WROUGHT who had been from the beginning to the side of Peron, after encolumnados management) and the other all the traditional parties, including the Socialist Party and the Communist Party (in lawlessness in much of the last fifteen years), middle and hegemonic economic interests within the fabric woven by the U.S. ambassador .

Moved schematically what happened in the battlefield of World War II, who had already completed, the political struggle in Argentina.

As an example, remember the words of Rodolfo Ghioldi, one of the top leaders of the Argentine Communist Party, at the ceremony on 1 September at Luna Park when greeting one of his political allies, "We welcome the reorganization of the opposition Conservative Party operated in to dictatorship, without detriment to the social traditions is poised to embrace national unity ... "but more important is the vision that gives respect to international perspectives;

"Conservation of friendship with Britain without detriment to national development; improve radically with the United States, starting from the line of good-neighborliness, now taken up by Secretary Byrnes and so heartily endorsed by Mr. Braden" (14)

When on August 28 the Radical Civic Union endorses Democratic Coordinating Board "is already completed legal assembly of the Democratic Union.

Your company presentation will be through the March of the Constitution and Freedom, on September 19. According to the newspapers of the time was something never seen on the streets of Buenos Aires, compact crowd marching blocks from Congress Plaza Callao to Plaza Francia, says Scenna:

"The head of the column was formed by the staffs of allied parties in the Democratic Union for the beneficiaries of the fraud and corruption Justismo by the magnates of the Infamous Decade, all brotherly arm in arm. Rivalries, hatreds, doctrines were behind. They were all one "(15)

Should be added that also participate in the march, senior U.S. and British embassies.

Braden could retire quietly, "the creature that had given birth, began to take its first steps," as he was promoted to Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs. Traveling on 23 September, but not before promising to use his new position to save democracy in Argentina.

This situation is reflected within the armed forces in late September there is an attempted military uprising led by Rawson in Cordoba to overthrow the government of Farrell, but fails. Not so the statement of Brigadier General Eduardo Avalos-by-Campo de Mayo on October 8 posed Peron exclusion of all government positions, the same day he submitted his resignation as Vice President, Secretary of War and Secretary of Labor and Welfare.

In giving the resignation of entire cabinet, setting the date for general elections to February 1946.

Leading the Executive Branch is Farrell but only two ministers, Avalos as War Minister and Admiral Vernengo Lima as Minister of Marine.

With these measures and the tumor is removed, Peron was not on any charge, but there is a government with only two ministers in charge of the rest of the portfolio, that does not conform to Democratic Coordinating Board first requiring the delivery of government Supreme Court or the "unconditional surrender" (as the surrender of the shaft) and a cabinet headed by Dr. Juan Alvarez. Farrell accepts and entrusted with the mission to form a democratic cabinet.

As Felix Luna poses with respect to the demands of the moment;

"They talked openly of making" the Nuremberg tribunals. He saw the men at arms in an attitude of surrender. Instead of filling the power vacuum that had occurred, wanted to take total power, without realizing that lacked the strength to do so and that the army had done everything he could do. Require more was absolutely unreal. "(16)

OCTOBER 17, 1945

Peron ousted from office, the next step the government is sending arrested Martin Garcia Island. At the head of the executive remains Gen. Farrell, but the strong man of the moment is Gen. Avalos. They begin the nine days that shook Argentina.

Unions call for mobilization without waiting for the call of the CGT, in fact forcing the leaders of it to open the discussion and take a stand (an example is the mobilization of FOTI-workers of the sugar industry in the Northwest from October 15). The Confederal Central Committee (CCC) takes place on October 16, it discusses two positions: one is that of those planning to convene a general strike demanding the release of Peron, the other are those who are refuse to take this action, invoking the union regardless off what they consider an internal problem of the military government. In the vote C.C.C. succeed the first by 21 votes to 19, the labor union calls for general strike on 18 October (the text of the call to strike did not directly mention Peron, but demanded "freedom for all civilian and military prisoners ... "The CGT as such could not call out for freedom of someone who was not labor).

By taking this step the C.G.T. coordinates and channels a protest movement that was growing from the bases barely heard of the arrest of Peron.

The state of mobilization, both in com unions in the districts of Greater Buenos Aires, carried in the early hours of 17 October the workers leave the work and returning to the Plaza de Mayo, (the following is true abandonment instructions of the strike committee of the CGT).

The government initially hampered the mobilization, but divisions among military leaders, prevents him from obtaining the unanimous support of the Armed Forces to begin clamping.

In the final hours of freedom are commanded by Colonel Peron (at that time was in the Military Hospital) is moved to the Casa Rosada, from whose balconies addresses the crowd.

Peron accelerates its upward around his figure heterogeneous link together two political and social fronts.

The impact of popular mobilization was very great in the various sectors of society, Moon points out com;

"He was without doubt the most important day of our contemporary history because he pointed out the fallacy of the traditional parties and the factors previously existing power to exalt an element that everyone had always invoked, but that did not exist as physical fact Specifically: the masses, pure people, common man who broke the schemes of their leaders, even the most respectable, to impose its will "(17)

CAMPAIGN

After those great feats of strength and mobilization of the two fields of society-that of Argentina, September 19 and October 17, starts the election campaign. But while the "Democratic Union" which is being realized, will have the party machines of its components in the opposite camp there were no parties or mechanisms that could take advantage, it should create organizations that endorse the submission of Peron had past situation in retirement-election bid. On October 24 the Labor Party was founded based on the unions. All its leaders come from the union camp, among others are: Luis Gay (phone), Cipriano Reyes (meat), Monsalvo (rail), Perez (commercial), José Tesoriere, Alcides Montiel, several of them from socialist, syndicalist or anarchist which proclaim Perón's candidacy for president. On the 29th of the month there is a detachment of the Radical Civic Union which is constituted as UCR (Renewal Board) in support of Peron. The same is to be elected vice presidential candidate, the nominee is Hortensio Quijano. These two

new parties will receive support from members of FORGE importantísimmo (Radical guiding force of the Young Argentina) which was dissolved on 15 November 1945. His brief record of solution leaves no doubt:

"Declares that the thought and the aims pursued by creating WROUGHT are met by defining a popular movement in political and social conditions that are the collective expression of national will and resolve (...) dissolving WROUGHT action by releasing its affiliates.

Arthur Firman Jauretche - President
Darío Alessandro - Secretary of the Assembly "(18)

These two organizations, the Labor Party and UCR (Renewal Board) - will join smaller groupings such as "civic center" and the inside and the Radical Civic Union in Salta Yrigoyenist wins provincial elections. As we can see in this field has been a social and political front but unlike the opponent, there is a hegemonic figure is Colonel Peron.

The Democratic Union proclaims the formula consisting of the radicals, José P. Tamborini candidate for president and vice president Enrique Mosca December 27, 1945. At the same convention is ratified participation in the Union for Democracy and approving the election platform (despite the opposition of Amadeo Sabattini, Honorio Pueyrredón and Elpidio Gonzalez among others in the future Intransigence, who oppose the participation of the UCR the Democratic Union).

As we see the peak summer is 45-46, Argentina society massively involved in the acts of both political and social fronts. The leading candidates touring the country on trains of the "Freedom" or "La Victoria".

The Argentine episcopate issued a pastoral where combat atheism and praises the law of religious education in schools (giving thus a latent support for the formulation of the Labor Party).

The last months of the season pass without major incident. There are only two elements which some analysts took to the electorate to dump the formula Perón-Quijano. The first was the discovery of a significant contribution of money to the campaign funds of Democratic Union by a camera bosses.

The second element of fundamental importance was the publication of the "Blue Book" by the Department of State United States. This publication, driven by Braden, accusing the Argentine government and Peron of Nazi fascism friendly activities. To base the prosecution was based on some documents seized in the German Chancellery and through its manipulation was to demonstrate that Peron and his collaborators were the bridgehead in Latin America from the Axis forces.

The effect on society caused Argentina's exactly the opposite from that intended, as an important sector will vote for candidates of the Labor Party in protest at U.S. interference in the election campaign. It's worth noting that it is polarized in a single slogan Braden or Peron.

To end the electoral landscape analysis transcribe Smith Jr., mentioned by Alberto Ciria:

"While the Democratic Union promised" social justice "to Argentine workers, Peron could draw attention to the specific benefits that are attached, including salary increases, bonuses and discounts for rentals, with the caveat that these benefits were only a sample of what to expect if elected president. " (19)

The election is held on February 24, the formula Perón-Quijano wins by 56% of the vote against 44% of Tamborini-Mosca.

The various forces considered the elections generally as beyond reproach.

CONCLUSIONS

Peronism has been characterized from an identification with European models falls within the Fascism, Bonapartism or Caesar. An attempt to define it as a result of the transition or emerging that crosses traditional agrarian society on their way to a modern industrial society. This, for example, is the thesis of Gino Germani and Torcuato Di Tella.

Rodolfo Puigróss defines it as a national liberation movement, multi-class, popular and revolutionary base (identified with national liberation movements emerged with the decolonization process, which occurs at the end of WWII).

Michael Richard Jeni Murmis and characterize it as the expression of a developmental stage of the class struggle in Argentina (marking it as a degree or level of development of class consciousness of Argentine workers).

These are some of the many interpretations that emerge from studies of Peronism address, from sociology, political theory and historical sociology.

We have tried-and without claiming any comparison with such work-relate the origins of Peronism and the international context, considering the features essential for our country dependent. As posed by the historian Horacio Pereyra:

"In countries dependent historical times are not determined by themselves. Peron developed a successful strategy for achieving power, favored by the international situation was conditioned (...) externally by the refusal of U.S. aggression, and internally by transnationalized sectors and partners, plus those who took refuge in a narrow-minded opposition "(20)

This narrow-minded opposition, "Pereyra-posed will mechanically transfer scheme vs. Fascism. Anti-Fascist Front, ignoring the specificity of the real situation in Argentina. It falls into the mistake of not differentiating that Nationalism is a developed country expansionist policy, is fascism or Nazism but in one country is dependent anti-imperialism.

Antifascist Fronts In that form under the "guidance" of the Allied powers there is an arc of solidarity that goes from the Catholics, socialists and liberals to communists, fighting with weapons in hand against the occupation forces. As you can move this situation to a totally different process conditions as is Argentina?

How the components of the Democratic Union allow public and shameless interference of S. Braden?

We believe that, when Peron, the business cycle of a process concerning social and economic pop does not fit into the frameworks of the traditional political superstructure, which excludes the "free and democratic world" in the fight against the "Nazi-fascism .

From this process we can say that the emerging phenomenon of Peronism would be recognition within the social structure of the new sector that has developed, and workers. In the same way that the middle sectors are incorporated through the turn of the century radicalism.

It's worth noting that this addition, workers goes far beyond economic and social achievements, as he claims D. James:

"The fundamental appeal of Peronism is its ability to redefine the notion of citizenship within a broader context, essentially social. The question of citizenship itself and access to full political rights, was a powerful aspect of Peronist discourse, where he was part of a language of protest, popular, high profile, facing political exclusion (.. .) partly also the strength of that interest for the political rights of citizenship stemmed from the record of scandals of the "infamous decade" that followed the overthrow of the military Yrigoyen in 1930 "(21)

The relationship established with the United States after the triumph of Perón-Quijano formula is developed along the same route that occurred during these three years we have looked, at times with big ups and downs. When the Allied front was broken and the Cold War begins, separating into two blocks, the victors of the war, Argentina will lift the policy of the Third Position in the international arena and will be one of the few countries that will not to participate in the Korean War, beginning in 1950.

Are to develop themes of fundamental importance as the welfare state conepto relationof applied to the Peronist government. The planning of the economy through the Five Year Plan. As it implements the I.A.P.I. We could put many points, but our goal is to bring a material, trying to take a different approach to relate the international situation, its incidence, with the Argentine political moment.

(1) Jones, Gareth Stedman, "Rethinking Chartism" Languages of Class: Studies in English Working. Cambridge, 1984.

(2) Matsushita, Hiroschi: Argentine Workers Movement, 1930-45: projections in the origins of Peronism ".

(3) BAGU, Sergio: "Argentina in the World - The reality Argentina in the Twentieth Century."

(4) DIAZ ARAUJO, Enrique: "The conspiracy of 43 - The GOU: militaristic experience in Argentina".

(5) Scenna, Michelangelo: "The long misunderstanding. History of the Argentine-Yankees. The time of confrontation. "

(6) DIAZ ARAUJO, Henry, op. cit.

(7) Fayt, Carlos S.: "The nature of Peronism".

(8) CIRIA, Alberto: "Parties and Power in Modern Argentina (1930-1946).

(9) RUBIO, José Luis: "The international workers in America."

(10) Scenna, Miguel Angel: "F.O.R.J.A. Una Aventura Argentina - (Yrigoyen to Peron). "

(11) Ibid.

(12) Garcia Lupo, Rogelio: "The revolt of the generals". This book tells the story broadly S. Braden.

(13) Smith, Jr.: "Yankee Diplomacy" taken from Ciria Alberto.

(14) Ghioldi, Rodolfo: "The Communists in the service of our country."

(15) Scenna, Miguel Angel: "F.O.R.J.A. ...

(16) LUNA, Felix: Argentina from Peron to Lanusse 1943/1973.

(17) Ibid.

(18) Document: Minutes of dissolution F.O.R.J.A.

(19) CIRIA, Alberto: "Matches ...

(20) PEREYRA, Horacio: "Some theories for the analysis of Peronism (1943-1955)"

(21) James, Daniel, "Resistance and Integration." Peronism and the working class Argentina 1946-1976. Translation of Luis Justo

Octavian Augustus (Third part)

2010-03-05T10:28:00.000-08:00

The Twelve Caesars
Gaius Suetonius

Biography Part Three Octavian Augustus

LXXI. Of all these accusations or calumnies, of having prostituted which was more easily refuted by the purity of his life at that time and thereafter. It seems that was also less passionate about the luxury of what was said, since after the capture of Alexandria, of all the riches of kings aside by a glass of clay, fusing all gold everyday. But, nevertheless, was always inclined to women, and say they wanted especially with age virgin seeking that this is everywhere, and even his own wife searched for her. As for his reputation as a gambler, not worried in the least, and always played with abandon, calling it a comfort, especially in old age, he played, therefore, both in December as in any other month, whether or not day holiday. Of this there can be no doubt, because although it is preserved a letter that reads: I have dined, my dear Tiberius, with whom they know. Vinicius and Lilius, father, have come to increase the number of guests. The older we played with dice, at dinner, yesterday and today. As and six lost, and spent the money game for granted, but Venus takes it all. In another letter he says: My dear Tiberius've been pleasantly feasts of Minerva, having played relentlessly all day. Your brother complained, but ultimately, their losses have been severe, and eventually changed the fate and recovered from their disasters. As for me I lost twenty thousand sesterces, because of my regular donations, because if he wanted me to pay the beating of my adversaries and ill give nothing to the losers would have won more than fifty thousand. But I prefer this, because goodness I am worth my eternal glory. His daughter writes: I have sent two hundred and fifty money, I have as much to each guest, to play at dice or at odd and even during dinner. Augustus was, however, very moderate in their other customs and was protected from censure.

LXXII. Dwelt first near the old Forum on the ladder ring, in a mansion that belonged to the speaker Calvo. He served on the Palatine Hill after the house, no less modest, Hortensio, neither was spacious and was decorated, for its galleries were narrow and common stone, having marble or tiles on the rooms. Bedtime for over forty years, winter and summer, in the same room, and always spent the winter in Rome, despite having experienced the air of the city was contrary to health in this season. When he had a secret business deal or want to work without being interrupted, shut himself in the top of his house, in a case he called his Syracuse or museum, or a fifth retired immediately, or home of any of its freedmen. When going to bed feeling ill Maecenas home. Withdrawals he liked best were those near the sea, as the islands of Campania, or the villages located around Rome as Lanuvio, Praeneste, Tibur, where often administered justice under the portico of the temple of Hercules. He did not like houses too big and expensive, and did raze to the ground one fifth of his granddaughter Julia, whose construction had cost huge amounts. On their own, which were very simple, cared less of the statues and paintings to galleries, bushes and things whose value depends on their rarity or antiquity, like the bones of giant animals that are in Capri, and those gives the name of giant bones and weapons of the heroes.

LXXIII. Can judge its economy in the removal of the beds and tables that already exist, and they are hardly worthy of a particularly wealthy. Went to bed at a very low bed and dressed with great simplicity. Never used other clothes that he concocted at home his sister, his wife, daughter or granddaughters. His dress was not narrow nor broad, nor was its broad nor narrow lacticlavia. He wore shoes seem a bit high for taller, was always in her bedroom suit and shoes he carried in the Forum, to be ready to present in case of sudden occurrence.

LXXIV. Frequent guest, but in these foods, always regular, carefully distinguished the ranks and people. Valerius Messala concerns that it never admitted to his table to any freedom, except Menas, who had granted all the rights of free birth, for having made delivery of the fleet of Sextus Pompey. Augustus himself tells us that one day he was eating with an old soldier of his guard, in whose house he was. Sometimes he sat at the table after the other and stood before their peers, having started to eat before arrival and continuing after leaving him. Her meals usually consisted of three services, and six in the great feasts, and the more modest era, both showed more cheerful. He tried to talk with silent or spoke only in whispers, and did go musicians, buffoons, clowns and dancers of the Circus, and most often poor orators.

LXXV. Festivals and ceremonies celebrated with great magnificence, but often not looking at it more than once ridiculed. Thus, in the Saturnalia, and at other times, at his choice, sending gifts to friends, consisting of dresses, gold, silver, coins from all parts, old parts of the time of kings or of foreign manufacture, coarse fabrics, sponges , tweezers, scissors and other objects of the same gender, with dark markings and double meanings. In their meals did draw lots of very unequal value, or put on sale tables overturned, depending on the chance to be undertaken or frustrate the expectations of the buyer. For each table there was a tender, and the guests were communicating to each other their good or bad fortune.

LXXVI. He ate very little (or even omit these details), and always of common things. Especially like bread mixed, small fish, handmade cheeses and fresh figs, the species that ripens twice a year, ate often before the usual time, at any time, according to the needs of their stomach. In a letter says: I have eaten in the carriage bread and dates, and in another: The Numa Palace return to my home, ate in the litter one ounce of bread and some raisins. A Tiberius wrote: No Jew who observes fasting more rigorously on the Sabbath day from what I've seen today, until the early hours of the night but I have not eaten in two bites before I bath perfume. Do not follow other rules than his appetite, it happens sometimes dine alone before or after dinner to the guests, during which nothing remained unproven.

LXXVII. He was also very sober in wine. Cornelius Nepos relates that in his camp before Modena drank only three times during the meal. Later in the midst of its greatest excesses only drank six cups, when exceeded, vomited. His preference for the wine strong, but it was strange that he should drink during the day, instead taking bread dipped in cold water, or a piece of cucumber, or a head of lettuce, or even a sour fruit and juicy.

LXXVIII. After the midday meal was delivered a moment to rest, clothing and shoes, covered feet and placing his hand over his eyes. After dinner he retired to his bed work, where watched part of the night until finished, or left at least very advance what he lacked resolve the issues at hand. He then went to bed and never slept more than seven hours, that were not even continuous, as in this space of time awake three or four times. If, as usual, did not recover interrupted sleep, did you read or recite stories: after returning to sleep v ordinarily remained in bed until after dawn. Never watched in the dark without someone to accompany him. He did not like getting up early, and when some sacrifice or public duty obliged him to get up early, trying to not experience much discomfort, lying in a servant of his house near the place where I had to go, but despite this precaution, too often sleep over him when he carried through the streets, and if anything happened that would make stopping the litter, seized the opportunity to sleep.

LXXIX. His appearance was very nice with no change with age but showed no taste for adornment, no care was becoming by the hair, which made him hastily cut off several barbers at once on the chin, sometimes it was cut too little, others much, and while doing reading or writing. It was so serene countenance, and spoke, and to remain silent, that a Frenchman, belonging to one of the leading families in the country, confessed one day to own who to go through the Alps he came up with an excuse to talk, but with intention of throwing to a precipice and only appearance was enough to stop him in his resolution. His eyes were bright and shiny and would even consider that they are endowed with divine power somehow. So when he stared at one, liked to drop his eyes before the sun, lost in his old age, however much the left eye view. His teeth were small, light and uneven, slightly curly hair and some blond eyebrows together, medium ears, nose aquiline and pointed, dark complexion, short stature (although he attributed freedman July Morato five feet nine inches ), but so provided its members to observe that his short statue was necessary to see side by side taller than him.

LXXX. He had, say, his body covered with blotches, and chest and belly natural signals arranged like the stars in the constellation Ursa, intense itching, and the constant use of a stiff brush also welled calluses, which had degenerated into empedines. He had the hip, thigh and left leg a little weak, and often limping on this side, but remedied this weakness by means of bandages and canes. From time to time experienced so much inertia in the index finger of his right hand, which, when it was cold, had to write around it a circle of horn. It also complained of pains in bladder, which only subsided when throwing stones in the urine.

LXXXI. Suffered during his lifetime, several serious diseases and dangerous especially after the submission of Cantabria, had infarcts in the liver, losing all hope of cure. On the advice of Antonio Musa then followed the bold approach of the enemy, nothing had been achieved with hot fomentation, turned to the cold, and he recovered. He suffered from other ailments that even attacking him every year on a fixed day, being almost always wrong in the month he was born: he kindled the diaphragm spring and early fluxions suffered when wind blew from the south.

LXXXII. In winter you wore four layers beneath the thick cloak; added wool shirt and jacket, offering shelter to thighs and legs. In summer he slept with the doors of his chamber open and often under the portico of his palace, where the air was cooled by several fountains and a slave where he was also responsible for fanning. He could not endure the sun even in winter, and never walked the air, even at home without a headscarf. He traveled in a litter, and often at night, moving slowly and short stages, used to go to two days or Tubir Praeneste and when possible preferred to sea. Took great care of his poor health and bathed very rarely, preferring to rub with oil and sweat the heat, making him meet you later on warm water or warmed in the sun. Where, due to nerves needed sea baths, or thermal Albula, was content to sit on a piece of wood, which gave the Spanish name of Dureta, and dived into the water his hands and feet alternately.

LXXXIII. Immediately after the civil wars quit riding exercises and weapons in the field of Mars, first replacing the ball hard and wind, soon was limited, however, to walk on foot or in a litter, and ended walking, running jumping, covered with light canvas or thick blanket, depending on the season. When I wanted to give some rest to his spirit, fishing or play dice, the taba or nuts with children who loved and sought him everywhere, especially Mauro and Syrians. For the dwarfs, misshapen and deformed as the hated mockery of nature and objects of foreboding.

LXXXIV. Since childhood so successfully applied as a desire to study the eloquence and belles-lettres. Muciense During the war, and despite the huge weight of business, be sure to read every day, composed, and practiced in the domain of the word. Never spoke in the Senate, or the people or the soldiers without having thought worked slowly and his speech, though not without the ability to improvise. To avoid exposure to forgetfulness and not waste time memorizing, took the habit of reading every word. Prepared in advance to their private conversations, and when they should be about serious matter, was written even they should have with Livia, and then talked reading, fearing that improvisation would make him appear too short. He had some tenderness in his voice unique, and regularly took lessons from a master of euphony, but sometimes, due to disorders of the throat, had to resort to the voice of a preacher to speak to the people.

LXXXV. He composed many works of prose genres, and recited some in his circle of friends who served as his audience, among these are responses to Brutus, concerning Coton, of which he read most, despite being old, but had to order Tiberius finished reading, she also wrote the exhortations to philosophy and the memoirs of his life in thirteen books that embrace until the war of the Cantabrian and left unfinished. Also tried poetry, surviving him a little work in hexameter verses, whose title and subject is the Sicily and a short collection of Epigrams, which generally worked in the bathroom. It started with great enthusiasm a tragedy of Ajax, but not satisfied with the style, destroyed, one day his friends asked what had become of Ajax, Ajax replied that his had fallen on a sponge.

LXXXVI. He adopted a simple style and elegant at once, so far from vain pomp affected as rudeness, or as he said, composed of old words which have the smell of sick. His principal care was to express thoughts clearly, and to do better, not to hinder or restrain the intelligence of readers, not spared the propositions that determine the meaning of words or conjunctions linking phrases, and whose abolition, if you increase the grace of style, is at the expense of clarity. He despised equally the writers who create new words lavishly and those who want to banish the old, making tough opposition to these two defects. Patrons paying particular attention to and parody to correct him, he kept his censure flowery fragrance style. Nor Tiberius forgave his fondness for big words and enigmatic. Reprimand also in his letters to M. Antonio for his habit of writing things that are easier to admire than to understand, and mocking because rehearsed all styles and did not know what fixed, added: Hete in deep trouble: do not know what Annio Cimber imitate or Skinny Veranius or if you use the words that Crispus Sallust has taken the Origins of Cato, or if you do happen to our language the fickleness of empty sentences and words of the speakers from Asia. In another letter he tells his granddaughter Agrippina, celebrating its discretion: Beware especially of writing or speaking emphatically.

LXXXVII. For his autograph letters you see in family conversation was using many notable phrases. For example, speaking of bad payers, said: They will pay in the Greek Kalends. When advised to bear this fate, whether it might be, he wrote: be content with that Cato. To express the speed with which he had done something, said: Before you cook the asparagus. Almost always wrote baceolus by stultus (silly), pulleiaceus by pullus (animal husbandry), vacerrosus by cerritus (crazy). To say I am wrong I am writing in vaporous state, instead of the word lachanizare, with which usually expresses the state of languor, of betizare used, said potholes by sumus (we are) and domes, in the genitive singular, for domus (house), to show that this was in the beginning and not ignorance, never wrote these words differently. He also noted that in his manuscripts did not divide the words, and instead of placing in the top of the line following the letters that were left in a line, placed them under the last of this line and surrounded them with a stroke.

LXXXVIII. It noted much the spelling, ie how and why established by the grammarians to write, and apparently felt like they want to be written as we speak. Widespread misconception is to ignore or reverse letters and syllables, and not talk about it if I had not read with surprise in some authors, who replaced him as ignorant and a regular consular legacy for writing ixi by ipsi. When he wrote in figure put the b in a, c for by well with the other letters, for x put two a.

LXXXIX. He was very fond of Greek literature. and it took great superiority. It had the teacher to Apollodorus of Pergamum, which was already old when his young disciple took with him from Rome to Apollonia. Achieved after treatment varied with frequent scholarship philosopher Arens and his sons Dionysius and Nicanor. Never came, however, speak Greek properly or dared to write anything in this language. When circumstances demanded Latin writing, ordering another to translate the writing. He was smart in poetry, and enjoyed especially the old comedy, making represent frequently in public performances. What more curious looking at the writers of both languages were the precepts and examples to the public or private life; the copied word for word and usually sent them to their delegates to the generals, governors of provinces and Rome magistrates warnings or advice when needed. There were books to read full Senate, to make them available to people through edicts, and the speeches of Q. Metellus on the Propagation, and Rutilio on how to build, with this system is intended to prove that there had been the first to understand the importance of these two cases, but that the ancient Romans had occupied them. Favored by all means to the mills of his century, listened patiently and pleasure reading all the plays, stories, poems, speeches, dialogues, but not like that issue be taken for his praise, unless the work was of serious style and renowned author, recommended that the magistrates will not allow his name prostituyese literary contests.

XC. With respect to their superstitions, here is what is says is unwisely afraid of thunder and lightning avert the dangers of which he believed always carrying a cowhide marina. Approaching storm lurked in underground vaulted place, and this fear came from having once dropped Victorian lightning near him during an overnight journey, as originally said.

XCI. Greatly worried him their dreams and what he referred to it in others. The day of the battle of Philippi had decided, feeling a bit sick, do not leave your tent, the dream of a friend Moviola to change resolution, and rightly so, because, taken their enemies camp and falling on his bed, acribilláronlo beating, believing that was in him. By the spring was dreadful visions, very persistent, but uncertain and void, and the rest of the year was less frequent and less fanciful. At a time when I often visited the temple dedicated to Jupiter the Thunderer on the Capitol, he dreamed that Jupiter Capitoline had complained about this neighborhood that took away his worshipers, and said he had given to Jupiter the Thunderer as porter in the morning Next was garrison the top of this temple with bells such as those put on the doors. As a result also of their sleep every year on a fixed day begging the people, and extended his hand to passers-by to receive a few cards.

XCII. Considered as certain some auspices. If in the morning they put the right foot left shoe, it was a bad omen, if when he went for a long journey by land or sea mist fell, the omen was good and announced early and safe return. The wonders aroused much attention. Transplanted to the garden of the gods of Rome and made Penates painstakingly cultivate a palm that was born outside his home in the interstices of the stones. On the island of Capri that he thought he noticed an old oak tree whose branches fell fainting to the ground, had revived his arrival, and both rejoiced why, instead of Capri, Enaria ceded to the Republic of Naples. He also had special superstitions on certain days, never, for example, he set out on the day following the markets, or beginning any important business on the day of Nones, and this to avoid, so Tiberius wrote to the evil influence of omens attached to his name.

XCIII. With respect to foreign ceremonies, the ancient and respected the time-honored and laws, so despised each other. It had become initiated into the mysteries of Athens, and later, led by priests of the former Ceres, before his court in Rome, a case concerning their privileges and they had to reveal the secret things, brought out all his advisers and the public, and judged on its own the matter in the presence of interested parties. However, Egypt does not deviate even slightly worthy of the road to see the bull Apis, and highly commended his grandson Gaius for not crossing practiced in Jerusalem Judea any religious act.

XCIV. Since we are concerned in this matter will now omens that preceded, accompanied or followed his birth, and that seemed to announce his future greatness and its permanent happiness. In ancient time had been struck by lightning on the walls of Vélitres, and the oracle had declared that a citizen of the city someday come to possess the sovereign power. With this confidence, the people of Vélitres then launched fierce war against the Romans, who reproduced many times and threatened to be the cause of his ruin. Until a long time did not understand, and this for the event, that this omen was the power of Augustus. Refer Marato July that a few months before his birth, happened at Rome a prodigy who witnessed all its inhabitants and that meant that Nature was preparing a king for the Roman people. The Senate banned scared to raise children born in the year, but those whose wives were pregnant, expecting each prediction I helped him, managed to prevent the senate to carry files. Mendetos Asclepiades Leo, in his treatises on the divine, that Ada, the mother of Augustus, had come at midnight to the temple of Apollo for a solemn sacrifice, falling asleep in his bunk as he went the other women said they still slipped beside a snake, retiring shortly after, that waking, was purified as if out of the arms of her husband, and from that moment it was always in the body image of a serpent, an image that could never erase, so it would not ever appear in public restrooms, Augustus was born ten months later, and therefore passed by the son of Apollo. Ada also dreamed before giving birth, your bowels ascended to the stars and covering the entire length of the earth and the heavens. Also Octavian Augustus's father dreamed that a ray of sunshine out of the womb of his wife. The day he was born, deliberated in the Senate regarding the conspiracy of Catiline, and having arrived late Octavio because the birth of his wife, is well known that P. Nigidius, aware of the cause of the delay and the time of delivery, said he was born a master of the universe. Later, wearing an army Octavio more secluded part of Thrace, halted in a grove sacred to Bacchus, there consulted the god about the destiny of his son, with all private ceremonies of the barbarians, the priests preaching same things, because, after the libations of wine made on the altar of God, raising the flame to the top of the temple and from thence to heaven, miracle which only happened until then to Alexander the Great when sacrificed on the same altars. From the next night seemed to see his son Octavio bigger than they are mortals, armed with the thunderbolt and scepter, covered with the insignia of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, crowned with rays, and laurels sitting in a chariot drawn by twelve horses of dazzling whiteness. The reports of C. Drusus read that having the mother of Augustus placed the child at night in his crib in a room on the ground floor, did not find him the next morning, and that after having been looking for a long time, finally find him in the most top of a tower, and his face turned toward the rising sun. Just started talking, when pestering the croaking of frogs in the house of his grandfather, he commanded silence, and is said not to sing ever since. One day he was eating in a forest located just four miles from Rome, in the way of Campania, an eagle snatched the bread out of sight remontóse, and then dropped it back gently. Q. After Catullus dedicated the Capitol, Augustus had for two nights, the next dreams. The first saw a group of children playing around the altar of Jupiter, who took one of them, putting the statue on the chest of the Republic in his hand. He saw in the second to the same child seated on the knees of Jupiter Capitoline, wanted him out of there, but opposed the god, saying he educated for the support of the Republic. The next morning found Catullus to Augustus, who had never seen, and I call attention to its resemblance to the boy he saw in his dreams. Other related, but differently according to the dream of Catullus these, several children asked for a guardian to Jupiter, the god whom they designated one should entrust all their demands; play with his hand after the small lips, and immediately of his mouth. M. Cicero, accompanying C. Caesar to the Capitol, referring to his friends that he had a dream the night before had seen him, she explained, a distinguished child face down from the sky at the end of a gold chain, and stop before the doors of the Capitol where, in the hands of Jupiter, was a whip, then suddenly seeing Augustus, still unknown to most of them, whom Caesar had brought for sacrifice, said that this was the child whose face he saw in his sleep. The day that Augustus wore the manly toga, he ripped his lacticlavia both sides, and fell to the feet, some people concluded from this that one day you would be subject to the order of the costume was distinctive. When Caesar, near Munda, chose the spot of his camp, he cut a forest where they found a palm tree, which commanded respect as a harbinger of victory palm seedlings sprouted to the point that not only quickly equalized the stem, but they covered him completely, pigeons nesting in them, birds fleeing the rough and tough leaves of this tree. It is said that this prodigy was one of the main reasons that Caesar determined to not want another successor to the grandson of her sister. During his stay at Apollonia, Augustus raised Agrippa Theagenes observatory of the astrologer, he consulted by Agrippa, he first predicted a series of prosperity so great, so great, that Augustus would not say the day nor the peculiarities of his birth, dreading having to be ashamed before him for the prediction of a less brilliant destination. Defeated at last by the prayers of the astrologer, he declared them, and Theagenes, rising at once, he excitedly like a god. Augustus immediately gained such confidence in his destiny, which published a horoscope and did coin a silver medal with the effigy of Capricorn constellation under which he was born.

XCV. Shortly after the assassination of Caesar, when he entered Rome, back to Apollonia, being the clear sky was suddenly appear in it a circle, similar to rainbow around the sun disk, and soon after fell a thunderbolt the monument raised to Julia, daughter of the dictator. One day, he consulted the oracles, during his first consulate, appeared at his saw twelve vultures, as he once appeared to Romulus, and his sacrifice for his eyes were opened to the livers of all victims, have revealed to the last fiber, which, as stated all arúspides was great omen for him and happy destinations.

XCVI. Also took victory in all wars. Near Bologna, where they had assembled the troops of the triumvirate, an eagle perched on his tent, hurled two crows that the importuning, and toppled to the ground. The whole army was in that struggle the harbinger of discord that one day had to divide the three chiefs and even the outcome of the struggle. Before the battle of Philippi, a Thessalian announced the victory of J. Caesar, whose image it said had appeared in a lost way. One day he sacrificed under the walls of Perugia and not being satisfied with the sacrifice, he sent for new victims, being in it, the enemies, in a sudden attack, took away all the preparations, and arúspides stated that announced the dangers and setbacks to befall sacrificer those who had taken over the entrails of the victims, the subsequent events confirmed the prediction. On the eve of a naval battle fought in Sicily, while walking along the beach, jumped a fish of the sea, coming to fall at his feet. As soon as it was directed towards its fleet to take position before the battle of Actium, he found a colt with his driver, he was named Eutychus, meaning Blessed, and the donkey Nicon, or Victor. Later in the temple that was erected at the site of his camp, he dedicated a statue in bronze.

XCVII. Certis Omens also announced his death, which I will discuss shortly, and his apotheosis. When I closed the five years in the Campus Martius, before a vast multitude, an eagle flew repeatedly around him, He went after the pediment of a temple near where he was engraved the name of AGRIS and landed on the first letter. Under this omen, Augustus ordered Tiberius, a colleague, that would make the votes used for the next five years, although he had already prepared and written in his tablets, not wanting to deliver votes that had not seen made. Around the same time, a ray erased the first letter of his name from the inscription of one of his statues. Asked it the Oracle, he said he would not live more than a hundred days, number dialed by the letter C, that would be placed among the gods, because Aesar, ie what was left of his name means god in Etruscan language. Tiberius had given a command in Illyria, and wanted to accompany him to Benevento, but constantly delayed by the causes that led to his court, said (and these words were also considered omen) that nothing could stop him going more in Rome. He set out, reached Astura, and building a fair wind there, he embarked on his usual night, starting his last illness by diarrhea.

XCVIII. He walked the shores of Campania and wings neighbors, and spent four days in Capri resting and excellent mood. Sailing near Puzzola Bay, where passengers and crew of a ship of Alexandria which was in harbor, went to greet him dressed in white robes and crowns tight, burning incense before him, heaped praise him, and his wishes for its prosperity , exclaimed that he lived, and that he had the freedom of navigation and all his possessions. So glad you put these acclamations, who ordered distributed to all of his entourage forty gold pieces, and made them promise under oath that would use the money to buy goods in Alexandria. In the days that followed also distributed, and other small gifts Greek Roman togas and cloaks, making dressing the Greeks the Roman dress, and the Romans, Greek, a change that extended into the language. During the days he spent in Capri extremely pleased to see the exercises in a group of young Greek ruins of the ancient institution. He did serve his food in his presence, and gave them permission to order and delivered to all the liberties of his crazy old bag and enter the fruit, desserts and even the money that they brought on their behalf. There was, well, kind of distraction that does not deliver on that trip. Because of the happy lives of those in his party in the neighboring island of Capri, gave the Greek name of place of idleness. One such MASG, who had loved and who, joke, often called the founder of the island, had died the previous year, and the inhabitants of the country, all with lighted torches, the group visited his grave. Seeing one day from his desk, he improvised the Greek verse:

"I see the founder's tomb on fire."

and turning Trasillo, companion of Tiberius, who knew what it was, asked him what was that verse poet. One hesitated to answer, and then Augustus added the following:

"Do you not see a MASG surrounded by torches?"

and repeated the question, responding at last questioned that whatever the author, the poems were excellent; Augustus burst into laughter and joked for a long time. Then he went to Naples, continuing more or less tormented by stomach pains. Assisted in this city and five-year gymnastic games established in his honor, and he accompanied Tiberius to the place of destination. But in return, feeling worse, was stopped at Nola, he returned to Tiberius, had with him a secret conversation that lasted a long time, and no longer occupied more serious matters.

XCIX. The day of his death repeatedly asked if their state produced some commotion outside and asked for a mirror and arranged her hair to disguise the emaciation of his face. When they entered their friends, said: "I think I represented well this farce of life? He added the sentence in Greek comedies ending:

"If you like it, clap your hands and applaud the author."

Ordered to retire after all, asked about the disease still the daughter of Drusus some who came from Rome, and died suddenly in the arms of Livia, saying Livia v recalls living our mission farewell. His death was quiet and as always had wished for when she heard that one had died quickly and painlessly, exposed the extent his death wish him and all his family in this way, as expounded by the Greek word for shouting , and assaulted by sudden fear, dragged him forty young, however, was more evidence of weakness omen that reason, since Praetorian forty soldiers took his body to the spot where he explained.

C. He died in the same room as his father Octavius, under the consulship of Sextus Pompeius and Sextus Apuleius, 14 Kalends of September in the ninth hour of the day (63), at seventy-six years younger thirty-five days . They moved his body from Nola to Bobila, bringing the Ten municipalities and colonies and traveling by night because of the station. In Bobila was delivered to the knights, who took him to Rome, depositing it in the vestibule of his house. The Senate wanted to honor his memory by celebrating his funeral with pomp extraordinary number of proposals they presented to the subject: some wanted the cortege passed through the arch of triumph, preceded by a statue of Victory which is in the Senate, and the young nobles of both sexes singing dirges, others that day of the funeral will carry iron rings instead of gold rings, suggesting some to take charge of collecting his bones to the priests of the colleges. One also suggested that was moved in August to September, the name of Augustus, because he was born in the last and died in the first, another that the time from birth to death is called the Augustan age and with this name was known in the annals. They began, however, limits to such propositions. On his remains were delivered two funeral eulogies, one by Tiberius, before the temple of J. Caesar, and another by Drusus, son of Tiberius, near the old rostrum of the speeches, was carried on the shoulders of the Senators to the Campus Martius, where he was placed on the pyre. A former praetor said there had seen rising from the flames into the sky the image of Augustus. The most distinguished of the equestrian order, barefoot and wearing simple robes, gathered his ashes, deposited in the mausoleum which he had built during his sixth consulship between the Tiber and the Via Flaminia, speak to him surrounded by forest, being since then become public park .

CI. Augustus had made his will under the consulate of L. Plauco and C. Silius, 3 of the Nones of April, one year and four months before his death, he added two codicils, written partly in his own hand and partly by his freedmen Polybius and Hilarion. This will, deposited in the College of Vestal, was shown the same in three volumes with identical labels. Opened in the Senate and was read out. Instituted by principal heirs Tiberius and Livia, the first half plus one sixth and one in third, providing that bore his name. Without these, called the succession to Drusus, son of Tiberius, in third, and Germanicus and his three children in the sixth. Finally, third heir to a considerable number of relatives and friends. Bequeathed to the Roman people forty million sesterces, to each soldier of the praetorian guard, a thousand sesterces; to urban cohorts, and legions hundred, three hundred. These amounts should be paid at once, something not difficult, since they were booked in the Imperial Treasury. Also made other bequests, some of which were as high as two million sesterces, pointing to a year to pay, giving the excuse the modesty of his fortune, for he declared that his heirs would not get the succession more than a hundred million sesterces ( 64) although in the last twenty years of his life his friends had left by four billion will, by having everyone in the state employee and his two paternal estates and other family heirloom. He named only two Julias. her daughter and granddaughter to bar buried with him in the same grave. Of the three statements that will have left by four billion, to funerals, another a summary of his life, which was recorded on brass plates in front of his mausoleum, and the third was a statement of the status of the whole empire, with respect to the soldiers he had under the banners of money in the treasury of the emperor, in state coffers, and taxes or taxes still owed. Care must add the name of the freedmen and slaves who could be called accounts.

Notes

(41) For example, decenvirato and the councilor, called by the Roman magisterium; the word magistratus has highest significance.
(42) September 23
(43) land them on in newborn Ops invoking him favorably received, we called this goddess Levana because this ceremony presided pueris levandis of misses.
(44) When I raise Rome moved by pomp omens.
(45) and simultaneously raise means to remove.
(46) This will had been deposited by Antonio in the college of vestal virgins. According to Dio the existence of this document had been disclosed to Augustus by Titius and Glaucus, who had appeared as witnesses.
(47) Old Pueblo Africa, enjoyed great fame, it was believed that their bodies had the power to kill snakes, numbed with only its smell. When they had a son, to ensure that their wives had no trade with strangers, the newborn had a snake, if not in flight, the child was legitimate.
(48) From the Latin word vallum, trench, wall.
(49) Turip, panici, v. 612.
(50) The Senate decree power tribune in 724, after the defeat of Antony, did not take, however, hold up 731, it retained thirty-six years and some months, ie until his death in 767.
(51) These functions will be granted first by five years at 735, then at 742, for another five years. Perhaps because Suetonius the perpetual flame is always renewed.
(52) From the name of Augustus was derived by corruption, our August.
(53) provided a sort of conscription among girls from six to ten years which had entered the priesthood, the raging of his sisters, was also waived for the daughters of quindecenviros, the flamines and salianos .
(54) The law provides that Pompeii who had committed or attempted parricide, if he confessed, was bloodied beaten with rods, and then sewn into a sack with a dog, a cat, a snake and a monkey and thrown into the sea.
(55) were called Orcini, or freedom of Orcus, Pluto, which were by the will of their owners, so it seemed they were given freedom from the depths of the underworld. For the same reason it was called the Senators Orcini issue here. Caesar, according to Antonio, he had appointed in his Memoirs, and needed to respect your wishes.
(56) These judges were appointed to examine the state of the temples and public buildings, and be vigilant that they are repaired.
(57) The jurisdiction of these judges was very extensive, it covered judicial powers and the police, judged for example, the difficulties between masters and slaves, lacking the tutors, fraud of the bankers: repressed unlawful associations; watching shows, etc.
(58) These decorations were a laurel wreath triumphant mantle, scepter, a statue, cough thanksgiving to gods, the title of imperator, everything, in short, except the solemn march and truck of the winner.
(59) The dating manumissions citizenship rights, but exerted only in the four urban tribes, who were the least important. Aelia Leutia law imposes a restriction that says here is that Suetonius. There was yet another limitation to those who had been freed with less solemnity, which only acquired the rights of Latinos.
(60) Distributions in cash or extraordinary genres.
(61) torg, necklace.
(62) Iliad, III, 4.
(62bis) Do not you see that dude governs your disk with your finger? The allusion is to the double meaning of the word orbis, meaning both the circle (here the tambourine? And the universe.
(623) Since this meeting was hired sacrilegious choirmaster, and Malia saw six gods and six goddesses when Caesar, in his wickedness, dared to parody Phoebus, when renewing time entertaining the adulteries of the gods. Then all the gods moved away from the earth and Jupiter himself fled away from his golden throne.
(624) My father was a forex trader, I sell glasses.
(625) Lost at sea their boyfriends because of two storms was saved the day and night playing dice.
(63) August 19 to half past three o'clock.
(64) Something more than twenty-nine million pesetas gold.

Octavian Augustus (Second part)

2010-03-05T10:24:00.000-08:00

The Twelve Caesars
Gaius Suetonius

Part biography of Octavian Augustus

XXXIII. He administered justice itself frequently, and sometimes even at night. When he was ill judged from a litter placed before the court, or at home and in bed. Not only great care applied to the trial of causes, but also adds sweetness displayed. Wanting to release a defendant convicted of parricide the honor of being sewn into a leather bag (54), which applied torture to which he pleaded guilty, he suggested, they say, the prosecution in these terms: Is not it true that you have not killed your father? In a testament false accusation, which were complicated by virtue of the law Cornelia everyone who had armed themselves, circulated to the judges, in addition to two regular tablets of condemnation and acquittal, one in which he forgave those whose signature has been obtained by mistake or fraud. Every year were delivered by him to the prefect of Rome appeals by litigants residing in the city, the inhabitants of the provinces were given to each of the men responsible consular especially foreign affairs.

XXXIV. Review all laws and restored an absolute number of them, as there were sumptuary and against adultery, immorality, intrigue and celibacy. Regarding the latter, which was even more severe than the others, the violence of the protests that prevented him from keeping it raised and forced to remove or soften some of the sentences, to grant a period of three years and to increase the rewards . Although reformed the law in this way, the Knights called loudly for its abolition in full spectacle Augustus, then, calling the sons of Germanicus, who came, some on their arms and the other to his father, and show the people urged to look at attitude and not afraid to imitate the example of the young prince. Realizing later that mocked the provisions of the law, choosing brides who could not marry in a long time and often changing wives, restricted the duration of the engagement and limited the freedom of divorce.

XXXV. The excessive number of senators had made this body a strange and confusing amalgam, having, in effect, over a thousand, of which some were completely unworthy of this range, which had been high after the death of Caesar, please or money, and whom the people called Orcino (55). Augustus, through two elections, returned to this body proportions and primitive splendor. The first choice was left to the discretion of the same senators, of which each had to choose another, the second was made by Agrippa. When the new Senate presided, wearing, say, a breastplate under his robe and a sword at his side, ten Senators robust, his friends, around his seat. Refer Cordo Cremucio that at this time, only admitted to his presence senators one by one and after being registered. Augusto forcing some to resign, and authorized the insignia of his dignity to those who submitted to his desire, as well as its position in the orchestra and in the solemn feasts offered to the gods. As newly elected senators or preserved, arranged so that their duties they seem both more sacred and less painful, which, before settling, would make each a libation of wine and incense to the divinity of the temple where sit, it also ordered that the Senate would hold no more than two meetings per month, on the Kalends and the Ides, and that in the months of September and October would be required to attend any sessions, except those designated by lot to form the legal number. He created for himself a Council, which was renewed every six months by lot, with the deliberate about business to be presented to the full Senate. In important cases did not reflect the votes according to the established order, but according to your taste, so that each senator had to be willing to give views instead of simply following the other.

XXXVI. He still had many other innovations, including prohibiting the publication of the proceedings of the Senate and sent to provincial judges whose functions just had just completed. He wanted to proconsuls assigned fixed compensation for transportation and room expenses previously awarded in competitive bidding. He retired from the city Quaestors custody of the Treasury, entrusting it to the magistrates and citizens who had been. Decemvirs charged the court calls centunviros, functions previously entrusted to those who had received the dignity quaestorship do.

XXXVII. In order to involve more citizens in the administration of the Republic, created new jobs, the monitoring of public works (56), roads, aqueducts, the bed of the Tiber, the distribution of wheat to the people; organized a prefecture in Rome (57), a triumvirate for the election of senators and another to interview the gentlemen who had long since ceased to choose, and increased the number of magistrates. He also asked that when he became consul, was to give him two colleagues instead of one, which failed, having already lowered all its majesty too honored to share with another that he could enjoy himself.

XXXVIII. Generously rewarded the military merit, was given the honors of victory more than thirty generals, and the triumphal insignia still a larger number (58). To quickly get used to the children of the senators in the management of public affairs, allowing them to take the lacticlavia while the manly toga, and attend the Senate since that time. After some time of military service the tribune of the legion, and even cavalry corps commanders, so that no one was alien to life in the camps, distributed between two senators often command a wing of the army. He made frequent men's magazines, restoring the use, since well abolished, its solemn procession. It also prohibited that any accuser forced to get to any of his horse, as was formerly in the midst of this ceremony. A mutilated elderly authorized to send his horse in his place, and stand to answer whether the quoted foot, granted, finally, to the gentlemen over thirty-five years, please return the horse if they did not keep it.

XXXIX. Having asked the Senate ten colleagues, made all the knights give strict account for their conduct, those who were found wanting, were punished with different penalties, and some with a note of infamy, several of them escaped with more or less severe repression, consisting of the lightest in tablets that should deliver on the spot and read quietly, some were punished for lending money with interest, after having succeeded to such an object to a very low interest.

XL. When the ballot for the election of tribunes there was insufficient number of candidates for senators, chosen from among the Roman knights, taking them right, upon expiration of their office, to remain in the order they chose. Like many gentlemen, ruined by civil wars, dared not sit on public games on the benches reserved for this order, for fear of incurring penalties theater, said that was enough to get rid of these have appeared in person at the equestrian order, or have relatives that are listed therein. Established the census of the people for quarters, and deliveries of wheat to not deviate too often commoners of their occupations, he delivered three times a year bonds for four months, seeing, however, who missed the old use of monthly distributions, it reinstated. It established the old regulations relating to elections and imposed penalties multiplied with coercion. On election day, the tribes Fabia Scaptia of which was a member, he did so distribute thousand sesterces per head, so they had nothing to ask any candidate. Granted very great importance to preserve the Roman people pure from any mixture of foreign or servile blood, granted only the right of citizenship with extraordinary reserves, and restricted the power of manumission. A Tiberio, asking the right for a Greek client of his, wrote that he would grant it if he had not come to prove the justice of their request. Livia, who requested the same for a tributary Gaul, was refused, offering to free his protégé of the charge, preferring to remove as I said something to the Treasury, to prostitute the dignity of a Roman citizen. Not content with having raised many obstacles between slavery and the simple freedom, with more still to be opposite manumissions legitimate, whose number, position and fix took care of differences, but also prohibited the slave who had taken or suffered chains the torture could never, and in any manner whatsoever, to obtain the rights of citizenship (59). He also intends to restore the ancient Roman costume itself, seeing a day in a town meeting many dark cloaks, angrily exclaimed: "Behold, Romans, these conquerors of the world and those winners with toga and entrusted the Velasco councilors that for anyone, hereafter filed in the Forum or Circus without the cloak and Roman toga.

XLI. On many occasions presented the testimony given in all orders of his generosity. Brought to Rome by order of his royal treasury of Alexandria, shed such an abundance of cash, which immediately lowered the interest of money and raised the price of land, and later, when the Treasury was increased with the seizure of assets of the condemned, provided pro bono, and for a specified period, which could account for twice as much. He raised the census required for senators of eight hundred thousand sesterces to one million two hundred thousand, supplementing, but those who do not possess. Frequently congiarios gave the people (60), but need not always equal the amount, were sometimes four sesterces per person, others three hundred, and only a few hundred or fifty. Of these donations did not exclude children or infants, although it was customary not to include them until the age of eleven. In times of scarcity it was also distributed rations of wheat, often at very low cost, and duplicate while the distribution of money.

XLII. This shows, however, sought only by this means the welfare of the people and not their favor, is that one day having raised complaints about the high price of wine, he suppressed the cries and said indignantly that by introducing his son Agrippa many aqueducts, had served enough that no one had sed. Another day, the people having recalled the promise he had made a congiario replied that they should trust his word, but as another opportunity to claim the crowd something he had not promised, censure by his baseness and shamelessness edict stating that would give nothing, but had had prior intent. He showed no less firm when, looking after the announcement of a congiario that a large number of freed slaves had become free registration among citizens, refused to accept a distribution that is not promised, giving to others less than they had promised, so that the amount could be sufficient for that purpose. obligóle an extraordinary shortage at one time, Rome's take all the slaves for sale, all the gladiators, all foreigners, except doctors and teachers, and even part of the slaves in service. When he finally became abundant, conceived, as he himself confesses, the bold intention to abolish forever the distributions of wheat, because the hope of such distributions made to neglect the cultivation of land. He gave up his idea, convinced that his successor would not return this application with a view, ambitious, but since then moderated the excess, while reconciling the interests of the people with the growers and traders.

XLIII. Surpassed all who preceded him into the number, variety and magnificence of the shows. According to his testimony, he gave games four times in his behalf, and twenty justices absent or were not able to afford the cost. It was not unusual performances give different neighborhoods at once, in different theaters, and that would represent actors of all countries. Their games were held not only in the Forum and in the Amphitheater, but in the Circus and in the septa, sometimes merely of fierce fighting. Athletes also fought in the field of Mars, which were surrounded by bleachers for the show, gave a naval battle near the Tiber, in a place designed for such purpose, and where now stands the sacred groves of the Caesars. In those days tended to establish guards in the city, which was uninhabited solitude exposing the attempts of the outlaws. He also made a circus act in the charioteers, runners, hunters who did not have to do more than finish off the pieces, and sometimes these papers chose to represent young people of the leading families. He liked, above all, to see Trojans host the Games most distinguished youth of Rome, judging it beautiful and worthy of ancient times to help her show early on his enlightened race. A C. Asprenas Vernier, wounded by falling into one of these fights, gave him a gold necklace and autorizóle, and their descendants, to carry the name of Torquato (61). As a result of bitter complaints and insidious in the Senate gave Sen. Asinius Pollio, whose nephew Esernio had broken a leg, he concluded, however, by removing such games. Sometimes also made Roman knights out in theatrical games and gladiatorial combat, but this was before the ban was imposed by a Senate-consulted. Since then no longer forced to stand for anyone who has distinguished birth, except the young Lucius, who did only exhibit at less to have two feet tall, could not even seventeen pounds and had very strong voice. Wishing on a day to show the hostages to show the people of first births that were sent to Rome, made them cross the sand and placed under it in the second bank. Although there were day representation if Rome had brought something that had not been seen yet and it was worth seeing, then show it to people in all parts of the city in this way showed a rhinoceros in the field of Mars, a tiger on stage, and a snake of fifty cubits in the polls. Having felt sick one day votive games were held in the amphitheater, followed by lying in his bunk, next to the cars that drove to the gods. Another day for the games that accompanied the dedication of the theater of Marcellus, fell back, for having broken the suspension of your chair seat, and during a performance that gave his grandchildren, unable to contain or by any means to calm the people, he feared the collapse of the Amphitheater, left his post and went to sit on the site believed to be most threatened.

XLIV. There was great confusion among the spectators, who sat indifferently everywhere, but corrected this abuse, prompted by an injury received in a few games Puzzula busy, a senator who no one wanted to leave the theater filled seat found, command, then by decree of the Senate, which provided that should give public performances, the first row of seats shall be reserved for senators. Rome forbade the ambassadors of free nations or allies to sit in the orchestra, it warned that many of them were freed breed. Separate the people of the soldier, and said special seats for commoners married, those who still wore the excuse, said certain steps, which were beside themselves to their teachers, and forbidden entry to those who were badly dressed. With respect to women, who were previously confused with the audience, decided that they had separate seats, and only attended the gladiatorial combat in the stands sitting higher. He pointed to the vestal virgins in the theater special place near the rostrum of the Praetor. Banned, finally, to all women's shows athletes well, during the games that gave as Pontifex Maximus, having asked the people a boxing match, it postponed to the next morning, very early, and held, under its authority did not want women to be the theater before the fifth hour.

XLV. As for himself, witnessed the games of the Circus from the house of a friend or a freedman of his, and sometimes from a bed, similar to the gods, who sat with his wife and children. No wonder the show was absent for many hours and even days, in which case asking permission, appointing one to preside in his place. But when I attended was very attentive. Whether to avoid the whispers that reminded the people had often warned his father Caesar, who was busy reading through the letters show or memorials and answer them, whether it's because, in fact, exceedingly likes such representations, more than once as he frankly. So he was often giving their money to large crown and rewards in games and events not offered by him, and never attended the Greek struggle without reward each participant with a prize given to merit. He felt a certain passion for boxing, especially among Latinos, among them not only liked to watch professional athletes, exercised to fight with the Greeks, but also without rules and without struggling art space in the narrow alleys. Without exception, all those who devoted their public entertainment industry, seemed worthy of their care. He maintained the privileges of the athletes and ended up increasing them, forbade that they should do the gladiators fight to death, confined to the campus theater games and the coercive authority of an ancient law that gave judges on the players, at all times and place, which did not prevent very strict rules refer to the struggles of athletes and combat of gladiators. Suppressed the license of buffoons, to whip up into three theaters and then banish Estefanión actor for agreeing to serve by a woman wearing hair-free status as slaves cut, the jester Hylas, by complaints from the praetor, he commanded whip in the vestibule of his palace, where everyone could see it, and echo of Rome and Italy in the comic Pylades, for pointing the finger, showing the public, he whistled a spectator.

XLVI. After fixing things in Rome thus settled in Italy with twenty-eight new colonies and contributed in many ways its glory through jobs and revenues, the same in some ways made to Rome in rights and dignity, because it established a kind of vote that the Council of Ten of the colonies were in charge of collecting in each of them for the election of judges of the capital, and they sent closed for days of the election. To encourage all parties to honor the families and the spread, admitted in the order of knights whose request had been recommended by their city, and if they were of sections rewarded plebeians who had children of both sex, with a thousand sesterces each.

XLVII. Personally took charge of the administration of the most important provinces, not to seem easy and secure delivery to the authority of annual magistrates, let the other proconsuls be distributed by lot, sometimes, however, made changes and most frequently visited of these provinces, or not belong to his department. Deprived of their freedom to some allied cities, which threatened to ruin the license; relief to which they were overwhelmed; build again destroyed by earthquakes, and granted the privileges of Latium or the rights of the city, some by the merit of their services had been contracted before the Roman people. Except for Africa and Sardinia, there was, in my opinion, part of the Empire that did not visit, he prepared to do to these provinces after his victory over Sextus Pompey in Sicily, but was prevented from doing so by violent and continuous storms, not then taking the occasion or reason to visit.

XLVIII. As to the realms of war right passed to his power, restored almost all the same people whom they had been robbed, or was present for them to foreigners. Joined among them by blood, to the allied kings of Rome, showing frequent tireless negotiator and protector of all marriages of family or friendship between the kings, which considered and treated as members and component parts of the Empire of so much that he gave guardians for minor children or insane of them until adulthood or until healing, and he also educate and instruct their own children to many of these kings.

XLIX. As far as the army, he distributed the legions and auxiliary troops by provinces Misena organized a fleet and one in Ravenna with the task of monitoring the two seas. Rome remained a number of chosen troops to the security of the town and to his, because he had licensed the body of calagurritano, with whom he had formed his guard up his victory over Antony, and the Germans, who later served until the defeat of Varus. However, it had never agreed in Rome over three cohorts, and those without camping, the other left in the winter barracks near the neighboring cities. Established an invariable rule for pay and rewards to the soldiers, wherever they were, and determined for each grade and length of service awards attached to the license, for fear that the necessity of becoming, after early retirement in instruments of sedition. In order to readily provide the ongoing costs of this maintenance and of pensions, established a military background with the products of new taxes. It had also in all the military roads and short distances, young post office, and cars then, to be informed quickly of what happens in the provinces, in addition to the advantage provided by this measure, now has the power, when circumstances require, receive prompt further by carrying letters back and forth of the Empire.

L. The stamp imprinted on the public acts, instructions and letters was first a sphinx, then the head of Alexander the Great, and ultimately his own likeness, recorded by Dioscorides, using this stamp princes his successors. In his letters always stated that when he wrote them, whether by day or night.

LI. He bright and numerous tests of his mercy and kindness. I will not name all his opponents who gave life and grace to let get to the first dignities of the State, shall quote only two commoners June Novato and Cassius of Padua, who punished the one with a simple fine and the other with short exile, although the former had written against him and released under the name of young Agrippa violent letter, and the second had exclaimed in full banquet to kill him or did not lack desire or value. One such Emilio Aelian, Cordoba, appeared before the court, among other crimes and accusing him of speaking ill of the Emperor Augustus turned to the accuser and said with emotion: I wish you could prove what you say the accused, because then it would demonstrate to Aelian that I also have language, and say more about him than he has said about me. And then or later again took on the issue. Having been complaining about this restraint, Tiberius, in a letter, with great bitterness, he replied: Do not be misled, my dear Tiberius, the vividness of your age, and not angered too if you speak ill of me. Much is unable to do anything to us.

LII. I knew that, ordinarily, temples were dedicated to the proconsul, but not accepted in any province, unless it were the name of Rome and his own. Always rejected the honor of having them in this city and even ordered all statues melt silver had been erected at one time, with the money she got gold tripods dedicated to Apollo Palatino. Offered him the people's dictatorship with large organizations, but rejected placing a knee on the ground, getting off the robe and showing his bare chest.

LIII. He always had the title of lord horror, behave as if reproach or injury. One day I was in the theater, and having such an actor: Oh, sir kind and righteous!, All spectators, applying these words, applauded with enthusiasm quickly caught with the hand and eyes the low flattery, and in the morning following published a severe edict censoring. It also allowed their children and grandchildren will never give him the name, no seriously or in jest, forbidding also including this kind of flattery. I tried not to get into Rome or in any other city, or leave them, but in the afternoon or evening, not to bother anyone with empty ceremonies. As consul would ordinarily walk, when he was not carrying a litter became uncovered. The days of receipt admitted to the common people, and received with the greatest affability requests put to him, one day reproved one who shook gaily to give a memorial, saying he used so carefully as to present a coin to a elephant. The days of sitting in the Senate did not greet the senators but in their living room to sit, naming each one and no one helped her memory, and took leave of them leave the same way. He kept many regular citizens favors trade, not stopped going to their family parties to old age, after being very upset one day the crowd at a betrothal party. Sen. Gallus Tirrino, with whom he was joined any close friendship, having suddenly gone blind, he wanted to die of hunger was he to see him, comforted him and he reconciled with life.

LIV. One day, while speaking in the Senate, interrupted him, one saying I did not understand, and another: I would contest if he were released. Happen abruptly leaving the room, exasperated by the endless violent incidents that were promoted. and was told a few: The Senators have the right to discuss public affairs. Using Antiscio Labon the right to elect a senator at the time the Senate was reformed, elected Triumvir Lepidus, Augustus enemy once and exiled at the time, asking if he knew the others more worthy, he replied that each had his opinion. But this boldness, not hurt either.

LV. The pamphlets that were handed offensive against the Senate failed to arouse in him any care or desire to refute them, not even sought to authors, content to have to be pursued hereafter to be published under a name borrowed verses defamatory libel against either. Seeing the object of many bitter and insolent mockery, replied to them by an edict, which was always opposing take any steps to curb the license of language in the wills.

LVI. Always attending to the polls for the election of judges, the tribes ran their candidates, asking them to vote in the usual way and then he voted in his position as an ordinary citizen. Witnessing in justice, it was left to question and contradict with the utmost patience. He built a much smaller forum than I wanted, not to force the owners of the neighboring houses and destroyed. Not recommended for their children without adding people, if they deserve it. One day he was deeply troubled because upon entering the theater all the spectators rose and applauded, but still carried the pretext. He wanted his friends enjoyed power in the state, but who lived under the same laws as others and enforceable by the courts. Having been accused of poisoning Asprenas Nonius, intimate friend, by Cassius Severus, Augustus consulted the Senate about what to do on this occasion, fearing that he said to accompany him to court could be interpreted as his desire to wrest the culprit to the condemnation of laws, or failure to do so meant giving up the friend and ordered before the judges. It was apparently unanimous Senate to sit for several hours at the bank of the defenders, but was silent and even refrained from so-called judicial praise. Always attended to their customers, for example, such a sit down, his former soldier, haunted by injuries. The only defendant who wrested the rule of law was Castricio, whom learned of the conspiracy of Nureña, and even this did begging the accuser before the judges a waiver was granted.

LVII. It is easy to understand how long it would want with such behavior. Not speak of the Senate "consultations given in his favor, and that could be attributed to fear or flattery. But by choice, all Roman knights celebrated each year for two days, the anniversary of his birth. All orders of the state, in compliance with a solemn vow, thrown annually into the lake of Curtius silver coins for his health when he was absent, engaged him, on the Kalends of January, gifts in the Capitol, with the amount bought precious statues gods that was placed in the various districts of the city, like the Apollo Sandalitario the Jupiter Tragediano and others. When a fire destroyed their house on the Palatine Hill, veterans, decurias, tribes and many individuals contributed voluntarily, and each according to his abilities, to rebuild, but scarcely dared to touch those heaps of wealth, and nobody accepted more than money. When returning from any province, went to meet his wishes for happiness and singing verses in his praise. They sought their input in Rome do not coincide with any executions.

LVIII. The title of Father of the Nation was conferred by unanimous consent unexpected: first by the people, whereupon he sent a deputation to Antium, despite his refusal, he was given a second time in Rome, going to their meeting, with branches of laurel in his hand, a day that went to the theater, then in the Senate, not by decree or acclamation, but voice Massala Valerio, who said on behalf of his colleagues: We wish, Caesar Augustus, which can contribute to your happiness and your family, which is like the eternal desire for happiness and prosperity of the Republic Senate, which, according to the Roman people, greets you, FATHER OF THE NATION. Augustus, with tears in his eyes, replied in these terms, which mean literally like those Massala: Arrived at the height of my desires, conscript fathers, what can you ask for and to the immortal gods, but last until the end of my life the agreement of your feelings for me?.

LIX. For subscriptions was raised a statue near that of Aesculapius, his physician Antonius Musa, who had cured of a dangerous condition. Many parents imposed their heirs in the will on Capitol Hill that would provide a solemn sacrifice, the motive of which, announced publicly. would give thanks to heaven in his name, for having preserved HEALTH AUGUSTO. Some Italian cities began to count the year by the day when he first visited. Most provinces in addition to temples and shrines, founded in honor of her quinquennial games in almost every city.

LX. Kings friends and allies of Rome was founded, each in his own kingdom, cities named Cesare, and decided together to end a common expense of Olympian Zeus Temple, begun since ancient Athens, to spend the genius of Augustus. They often left their states to go to him, not only in Rome but also in the provinces I visited, then watched them greet each day, stripped of their regalia and wearing the Roman toga, as mere customers.

LXI. Now that I've shown and was in command and the magistracy, the head of armies, the government of the Republic and the world, in war and peace, I will refer to his private life and private, say what were, from his youth until his last days, his habits, his touch with his family, his fate in his family. He lost his mother during his first consulship and his sister Octavia, when he was fifty-four years, in life was to them all the attention and tributóles great honor after his death.

LXII. As a teenager, was betrothed to the daughter of P. Servilius Isaurian, but after his first reconciliation with Antony, asking the soldiers of both parties an alliance of family among its leaders, joined by the sister of Anthony, Claudia, which had Fulvia P. Clodius and it was barely nubile. Disgusted with his mother then Fulvia repudiated Claudia, whom he left untouched. Scribonia married shortly afterwards, the widow of two men who had children consular and the second, but also separated from her, outraged by its perverse ways. Then contracted marriage to Livia Drusilla, who had wrested from her husband Tiberius Nero, who was pregnant, the latter the only loved and upheld with embedded perseverance.

LXIII. From Scribonia had a daughter named Julia. Livia gave him no children, despite the strong desire; was pregnant once, and gave birth prematurely. Julia first married Augustus with Marcellus, son of his sister Octavia, who had barely emerged from childhood, died Marcelo, gave in marriage to M. Agrippa, having obtained his sister-in-law to cede this, because then Agrippa was married with a daughter of Marcelo and had children. Agrippa also died, after searching long Augusto husband for his daughter, even in the order of knights, finally chose his son Tiberius, before forcing him to divorce his wife, then pregnant, and had already returned to his father. M. Antonio Augusto wrote that Julia had intended for his son Antonio, then to Cortisone, king of the Dacians, in a time when he asked for wife the daughter of the king.

LXIV. Agrippa and Julia had three grandsons, Gaius, Lucius, and Agrippa, and two granddaughters, Julia and Agrippina. He married Julia L. Paulo censor's son, and Agrippina to Germanicus, his sister's grandson. He adopted Gaius and Lucius, comparing his father Agrippa at home by Ace and balance; acostumbrólos very young to the practice of public affairs, and appointed consuls allocated to the provinces and armies. She brought up her daughter and grandchildren with great simplicity, making them learn, even the wool; prohibióles say or do anything but in front of other people and that could be recorded in the annals of his house daily. Retúvolos whatsoever of any relationship with strangers, so far as to write to L. Vinicius, dignified and distinguished young man, who had been very prudent Baias going to greet his daughter. He taught his grandchildren to read, write and count, and put special care to imitate his handwriting. They sat in the same bed to eat, travel and went before his carriage or rode around him.

LXV. Misfortune destroyed, however, confidence and joy that inspired and educated a large family with such care. He was forced to banish the two Julias, his daughter and granddaughter, stained with every infamy, losing to Gaius and Lucius in the space of eighteen months, the first to Livia, and the second in Marsala. Then he adopted in the Forum under the law curiata, his third grandson Agrippa and his son Tiberius shortly after Agrippa had to take his family because of the meanness and ferocity of his character, banishing Sorrento. Was more sensitive to the opprobrium of his men to death. Those of Gaius and Lucius was not shot down, but when he banished his daughter, revealed the reasons for the Senate in a letter that read quaestor was charged in his absence, and their disorders embarrassed him so much, that was long separated from treatment of men and deliberated whether it would even death. A freedman named Phoebus, an accomplice in her daughter in their disorders, who hanged himself on this occasion, said his father would rather be be Julia. Forbade it in his exile the use of wine and all the comforts of life, and ordered that no man, free or slave, come to her without his authorization, and without his age, height, color and even the signs and had scars on the body. After belt years, allowed the back end of the island was the mainland, and imposed less stringent conditions. But he never consented to that lived by his side as the Roman people frequently and insistently requested by his return, wished, in full assembly, daughters and wives like her. On the other Julia, his granddaughter, forbade recognize and raise the child she gave birth shortly after his exile. Moved to an island to Agrippa, that far from improving, day by day becoming more intractable, and soldiers guarding him, getting a senate that confined him for life on that island. When they spoke in the presence of Agrippa or some of the Julias, always exclaim with a sigh: Blessed is he who lives and dies with no children and no wife v (62) and his family always called her three tumors and three cancers.

LXVI. Not to friends easily, but once given his, it was forever. Appreciate every friend I knew in merit and virtue, and could also support the small defects and lesser faults. Only two men can be cited who incurred their hatred, after granting him his friendship. Salvidienus Rufus and Cornelius Gallus, who rose from the humblest condition, the one to the consulate, the other to the prefecture of Egypt. At first, as punishment for their ingratitude and wickedness, denied entry at home and in the provinces he commanded, in the second, trying to stir up trouble, handed it to the justice of the Senate, and when the charges of his accusers and the decrees of judges also determined to be death, Augustus praised the zeal that had been deployed to avenge him, but shed tears and complaining of his greatness that was the only one who was not allowed to control his anger against his friends. Rich and powerful, others were friends of Augustus to the end of his life the first of his order, despite some troubles that passed between them. Thus, to cite many examples, M. Agrippa once lost patience, discretion and Maecenas: the first, slight suspicion of coolness and under the pretext that he preferred to Marcelo, left everything behind and retired to Mytilene, the other told his wife a secret Terentia State: the discovery he had just done in the conspiracy of Murena. In exchange for his friendship demanded adherence Augustus did not even finish in the grave. Indeed, even if very little greedy inheritance and never accept for who was not intimate with him, very carefully considered the last measures of his friends, and did not hide his disgust when he tried with little honor and liberality, nor its content when responding to hope the testimonies of gratitude and affection. As far as parties to the legacy and inheritance left him parents, accustomed to resign immediately for the children and reintegrate them if they were children, adding a gift the day he wore the toga virile or married .

LXVII. As lord and head properly managed to combine the severity with gentleness and mercy, and honored with his confidence to many of his freedmen, as Enceladus Licinio and others. Simply put chains to Cosmos, a slave of his who had murmured against him. He walked one day with his steward Diomedes, and this, with an impulse of terror, pushed him in front of a boar that rushed upon them; Augustus chose to consider him a coward villain, and as there was treason, was the first to mock the I had run some risk. The prince himself was killed Proclus, his freedmen, whom he loved deeply, when he was convinced of his adultery with midwives; sent to Talo breaking legs, his secretary, who had received five hundred money to communicate a letter, and did cast a river with a stone around his neck and slaves to tutor her son Gaius, who, taking advantage of his illness and death in their government committed acts of greed and tyranny.

LXVIII. Several young opprobrium from his reputation tarnished. Sex. Pompey tried him effeminate. M. Antonio blamed him have bought the price of his disgrace the adoption of his uncle, Lucius, the brother of Antony, claimed that after he has given to Caesar the flower of his youth, he sold it again in Spain for three hundred Hirtius A. thousand sesterces, adding that he used to burn the hair on the legs with walnut shell fire, to keep them softer. The village, a day at the theater, applied to transport of evil glee, this verse designating a priest of Cybele playing the tambourine:

They measure, ut cinoedus orbem temperat digit? (62bis).

LXIX. Nobody, not even his own friends, many deny that commits adultery, and only seek to excuse him, saying he was not so much by passion as by policy and in order to learn, through women, the secrets of his opponents. M. Antonio, not content to accuse the precipitation of her marriage to Livia, even charged that ushered in a feast of the banquet table to a room next to the wife of a consular officer, the husband being present, and when brought Again, she had red ears and hair in disarray. Add to Scribonia chided her for not being able to bear the haughtiness of a concubine, that his friends were looking for married women and nubile maidens to be have certain conditions, and he examined them as slaves for sale in the market Torani. At a time when there was still his enemy, Antonio wrote him familiarly:

What has changed? What is my mistress a queen? It's my wife, not yesterday, but already for nine years. Do you have only to Livia? I'm sure at the time you read my letter you've already enjoyed Tertulla or Terentila or Rufila or Titiscuria Salvia, or perhaps all of them. What matter where or woman who you want?

LXX. There was much talk also of the secret houses, commonly called "The Banquet of the twelve gods", in the diners wore them gods and goddesses, representing Apollo and Augustus. Antonio in his letters named and bitterly criticized all contained in such feasts, on which an anonymous author made these known lines:

Quum, primum istorum conduxit mensa choragum,
Sexque deos vidit Mallia, sexque ideas;
Impious Caesar dum Phoebi mendacia Luddites,
Dum nova divorum coenat adultery
Omnia se a terris tunc numina declinarunt,
Fugit et ipse aurata Juppiter throne (623).

The scarcity which prevailed in Rome became more outrageous of these orgies, saying in public the next morning that the gods had eaten all the grain and that Caesar was indeed Apollo, but Apollo tormentor, whose name is revered to this god in a neighborhood of the city. Also complains that the desire of Augustus by antique furniture and vessels of Corinth, and his passion for the game. For this reason, at the time of its proscriptions, wrote at the foot of his statue:

Pater Argentario, ego Corinthiarius (624);

because he was accused of having banned for many citizens to take over their glasses of Corinth in Sicily during the war was run this epigram:

Postquam a rictus classe perdidit ships,
Ut aliquando vineat, aleam regular Luddite (625).

OCTAVIAN AUGUSTUS

2010-03-05T10:21:00.000-08:00

the book The Twelve Caesars
Gaius Suetonius Quiet
Written in the second century D.C.

OCTAVIAN AUGUSTUS

I. Many monuments attest Octavio's family was at the age of the first of Vélitres. An important part of the city was known for a long time neighborhood Octavius, and was displayed on an altar consecrated by an Octavius, who appointed general in a war against a neighboring town, and noticed a day in the midst of a sacrifice to the god Mars , the sudden irruption of the enemy, took away from the flames almost raw meat of the victim, distributed according to the rite, he ran to the battle and returned victorious. There was also a decree that offer the same manner hereinafter victims to the god Mars and the remains were carried to Octavius.

II. Declared this family among the Roman king Tarquin the Elder, later classified by Serv. Tullius among the patricians, later went voluntarily to commoner status. The first of this family was by vote of the people was a magistracy C. Rufus, being quaestor had two sons, Gnaeus and Gaius, trunks of two branches of Octavian, whose fates were quite different: Gnaeus and all his descendants played the most important offices of state. But Gaius and his followers, either by fortune or by choice, they remained in the equestrian order until the father of Augustus. It's great-grandfather served in Sicily during the Second Punic War, as military tribune under the command of Aemilius Papus. His grandfather never got beyond the municipal magistrates (41) and aged in the abundance and peace. However, not all agree on this, and Augustus himself wrote that he came from an old and wealthy family of simple gentlemen, and that his father was the first senator of his name. M. Antonio reproaches him that his great-grandfather was a freedman, Roper Thurium the district, and his grandfather, a broker. Only that I found in relation to paternal ancestors of Augustus.

III. His father, C. Octavio, enjoyed as a young man of considerable property and public esteem and I am surprised that some writers have made him agent broker, and even buying votes in agricultural meetings. Brought up in affluence, easily reached the most authoritative, serving honorably. After his Pretura, Macedonia designóle luck, in the way he destroyed the fugitive remnants of the armies of Spartacus and Catiline, who occupied the territory of Thurium, special commission entrusted to the Senate. In the government of his province was so much equality as a value. He defeated the Thracians in kisses and a great battle, and so nobly tried to allies that M. Cicero, in many letters that still exist, exhorts his brother Quintus, then proconsul in Asia, where they enjoyed a good reputation, to imitate his neighbor and deserved Octavio like him gratitude of the allies.

IV. Upon returning from Macedonia, and before proposing his candidature for the consulate, died suddenly, leaving Ancaria, Octavia the eldest, and Ada, his second wife, Octavia Minor and Augustus. Ada was the daughter of M. Acio Balbus and Julia, sister of C. Cesare Balbo, by the father, was a native of Aricia, and had many senators in his family of mother on the other hand, was a close relative of Pompey the Great, honored with the Pretura, was also one of the twenty commissioners who, in under the Julian law, were responsible for distributing land to the people of Campania. However, pretending Antonio equal disdain for maternal ancestors of Augustus, says his great-grandfather was African race, which had a shop at Aricia, sometimes perfumes and other bread. Cassius of Parma, one of his letters, not content to call Augusto grandson of a baker, but also the grandson of a money broker, saying that sold flour your mother left the mill worst Arica, and the money changer of Nerulum the kneading with hands blackened copper.

V. Augustus was born under the consulate of M. Cicero and Antony, the ninth of the Kalends of October (42), shortly before sunrise, in the Palatine district, near Las Cabezas de Buey, at the site where now there is a temple which was built shortly after his death. The minutes of the Senate, is in fact a young patrician named C. Letorio, convicted of adultery, to avoid severe penalty for this crime, the senators argued before their age, origin and especially as the owner and guardian in a way I had touched the ground at birth Augustus (43), having therefore called grace in regard to this god, who was as particular and domestic divinity, consecrated by decree of the house where Augustus was born.

VI. Even today, in a cottage belonging to his ancestors, near Vélitres, taught the room where she breastfed, which is very small and like a kitchen, with belief in the vicinity of that was born there. Religious duty is not to enter into this camera but by necessity and with great respect, because, according to an ancient belief, which has the audacity to enter it, is suddenly assaulted by a mixture of horror and dread secrets, confirms this popular rumor that, having slept in this room a new owner of the property, either by chance, to see what was happening, she felt a few hours away by sudden and mysterious force, encontrándosele dying in front of the gate, where was launched from the bed.

VII. In its infancy, and in memory of the origin of their elders, was given the name of Turin, but also says that the reason was that shortly after his birth, his father Octavius in the territory of Turino beat runaway slaves. I can say with certainty what was called Turino, because I had in my possession an ancient bronze medal that represents child and whose inclusion in iron letters and almost obliterated, expresses that name. I gave this medal to our prince, who placed it with pious respect among his household gods. Another proof: M. Antonio, thinking outrage, he called in his letters often Turino, Augustus contented answer, I missed it injurious wanted her first name. He later of Caesar and the end of Augustus: one under the will of her uncle, and the other Planco Munatius proposal, although some senators wanted him called Romulus, having been somewhat the second founder of Rome. The prevailing view, however, the name of Augustus, because it was new, and especially because it was respectable, in fact, the places consecrated by religion or by the Ministry of augurs name is Augusto, whether this word is derived from auctus (accretion), since it comes from Gestus or Augustus, used both in the omens of birds, Ennio says in this verse:

Augustus illustrious omen postquam Roma condita est (44).

VIII. He was four when he lost his father at twelve spoke in front of the assembled people, the eulogy of his grandmother Julia, at sixteen civil wore the toga, and although his age was even exempted from service, the day of victory Caesar's war in Africa, received military awards. Having left her uncle, a few days later to Spain against the sons of Cn. Pompey, Augustus, just recovered from a serious illness, followed him with some companions along roads infested with enemies, we achieved despite a shipwreck, he did good service, and did admire not only his conduct during the trip, the nature of their character. Caesar, who fastened after the Spains, meditating an expedition against the Dacians, and another against the Parthians, sent in advance to Apollonia, where he surrendered to the study. There he learned that Caesar had been murdered and that he had instituted heir, and was in doubt for some time if implore the legions immediate relief, but refused to take this step as rash and hasty. He returned to Rome, where he came into his inheritance, despite the misgivings of his mother and his stepfather opinionated comments, Marcius Philippus, a man consular. Immediately raised armies, rule the Republic, first with Antony and Lepidus, he did it then with Antony only, for about twelve years, and finally, one for forty-four.

IX. Such is the summary of his life. Now I will discuss separately the various acts carried out by him, not in order of time but by nature to be understood more clearly and distinctly. Faced five civil wars, Mulciense, Philippi, Perusiana, Sicily and of Actium, the first and last against Antony, the second against Brutus and Cassius, the third against Luc. Anthony, brother of the triumvirate, the fourth against Sex. Pompey, son of Gnaeus.

X. It was the cause and starting all these wars which imposed the obligation to avenge the death of his uncle and maintain the validity of their actions. So since he returned from Apollonia, he decided to attack Brutus and Cassius openly unexpected and he saw that escaped that danger, who knew how to prevent, and then armed himself against them by the authority of the laws, and accusing them, though absent, as murderers. Not daring makers to games set by the victories of Caesar to fulfill this duty, he concluded. To better secure the execution of his designs, would replace a tribune of the people, who had just died, and although not yet a senator and patrician alone, itself run. They failed, however, all efforts by the opposition of the consul M. Antonio, which had done its chief backer, and that meant not let you enjoy anything, even ordinary and common law, but by making an exorbitant price collusion, then return to the big party, of whom he was hated Antonio, because he was besieged in Mutina Decimus Brutus, striving to throw the weapons of a province that had given him Caesar and the Senate confirmed. On the advice of some supporters, Octavio tried to assassinate him, but discovered the plot, and fearing to turn up for their defense and the army of the Republic veterans, who filled her extravagance. He was then with the title of propraetor, command of the army and ordered to meet with the new consuls Hirtius and Pansa, to bring aid to Decimus Brutus. In three months and two battles ended this war. Antonio writes that at first fled, appearing after two days without horses and without the cloak of a general, but there is no doubt that the second time filled the duties of chief and soldier, then in the thick of the fight, being severely wounded standard bearer of his legion, took the eagles on his shoulder, taking them very long time.

XI. Hirtius perished in this war, and Pansa, the first battle, and the second soon after a wound he received at her and then ran and] the rumor that Octavio had killed the two, hoping that the defeat of Antony and the deaths of the consuls let him sole owner of the victorious armies. Such suspicions aroused the death of Pansa, who was imprisoned as Clicón doctor guilty of having poisoned his wound. Niger Aguilio adds to these accusations that Octavian himself slew the other consul Hirtius in the confusion of combat.

XII. But when he learned that Antonio had been received, after his escape, the camp of M. Lepidus, and the other generals, according to their armies joined their opponents, without hesitation, he left because of the great grounds to justify his removal was complaints from speeches and conduct of many of them that some According to him, he had been treated as a child, claiming that he should be commended and praise (tollerumque) (45) to dispense the gratitude that is owed equally to its veterans. To bring out more and more his disgust for having served on that party, imposed a heavy fine to the people of Norcia, who had erected a memorial monument to the dead citizens Mutina before, with an inscription that said, died for freedom; could not afford it, for they were expelled from the city for him.

XIII. Successful alliance with Antony and Lepidus, also ended in two battles of Philippi war, despite being weak and sick. In the first they took their camp, getting away with great effort, winning the wing that sent Antonio. He showed restraint in victory, sending to Rome the head of Brutus, for the throw at the foot of the statue of Caesar, and with bloody outrages increased the punishments imposed on most illustrious prisoners. It refers to one of these, who begged grant him burial, he replied that he belonged for the vultures and some as father and son, asking him life, he commanded the fate they were playing to fight each other, promising to give grace to the winner, the father then threw himself against the sword of the son, and he saw him dead, killed himself while Octavio saw die happy. For this reason, when they brought the other captives, with the chain around his neck, before the winners, everyone, and especially M. Favonius, the imitator of Cato, agreed, after greeting with the name of Imperator, of addressing cruel insults. In the distribution that followed the victory, was commissioned Antonio to form the East, and Octavian to take veterans to Italy to establish them in the territories of the municipal cities, but only managed to anger both the old owners and veterans, complaining about that offal and others that they are not rewarded as they were entitled to expect for their services.

XIV. Trusting L. Antonio by this time at the consulate that was invested and the power of his brother, wanted to provoke unrest, but Octavio forced him to flee to Perugia, reducing hunger, but not without taking great risks himself before and during this war. It happened, in fact, that in a show, a simple soldier sat on a bench of the gentlemen did he throw him through a aparitor, and few moments later, his enemies spread the rumor that had made him die in torment, is very close to Octavio perish under the blows of the mob angry soldier who had gone, and only safe and sound file that was saved then died said the death. On another occasion, to sacrifice near Perugia, he nearly perished at the hands of some gladiators who left town abruptly.

XV. Taken Perugia, was cruel to its inhabitants, a few asked for grace or trying to justify the need to answer them die. According to some authors, the subject chose three hundred of the two orders and the sacrifice made on the Ides of March as the victims, their sacrifices before the altar raised to Julius Caesar. Others seek only provoked this war, to force its secret enemies and those they retained the fear even more than the will, to be discovered at last, giving their chief L. Antonio, and in order that their goods confiscated to serve him after his defeat to give veterans the rewards they offered them.

XVI. The war in Sicily was one of his first companies, but drove slowly, interrupting many times, both to repair the damage to their fleets, even during summer, by continuous storms and shipwrecks, to make peace at the behest of the people , which intercepted the food, was threatened by famine. When did repair ships and trained in the maneuver to twenty thousand slaves who granted freedom, created the port in July, near Baias, and opened to the sea and Lake Avernus Lucrino; beat Pompey between Nauloco Mylasa and, feeling slightly assaulted before the fight so invincible need of sleep, they had to wake him to give the signal. This fact gave rise, in my opinion, to the sarcasm of Antonio, when censorship was not able to look ahead a line of battle, and have been lying on his back, trembling and stupid eyes up to heaven, without abandoning this attitude, to show the soldiers, until M. Agrippa had put to flight the enemy ships. Others will decry a phrase and a wicked act, as having said, seeing his fleet destroyed by the storm that beat even know of Neptune, and have deleted the first games of the circus the statue of the god, one of the ornaments this solemn ceremony. In no other war has been so exposed against his will, to so many and great dangers. After having passed an army to Sicily, hoisted sail for the continent to get the rest of his troops, when he was attacked by improvised Democnares and Apollofano, Legacies of Pompey, and not without much work might be safe with a single ship . Another day, moving on foot near Stews, en route to Regio, saw the galleys of Pompey's party coasted the land, believing his own, down to the beach and was about to be captured. It happened also that, while running for lost byways, a slave of Aemilius Paulus, who accompanied him, remembering that once the father had forbidden her master and yielding to the temptation of revenge, tried to kill him. After the flight of Pompey, M. Lepidus, the second of his colleagues, whom he called to his rescue Africa, elated with the support of his twenty legions and claimed first place with threats in the state. Octavio took his army, and forgiving life on his knees asking him Circeya banished to the island for life.

XVII. Finally broke its alliance with M. Antonio, alliance always uncertain and doubtful, poorly observed with frequent reconciliations, and to demonstrate how he distanced himself from his rival customs of his country, he had opened and read in front of the assembled people the will that had left one in Rome (46), and which placed on the number of heirs to the children of Cleopatra. However, after declaring him an enemy of the Republic, sent all his relatives and friends, among others, C. Sosius and Cn. Domitius, consuls then forgiving also the inhabitants of Bologna, which since ancient times contained in the party of Antonios, who had taken arms against him as all of Italy. Soon afterwards he defeated in a naval battle near Actium given, which lasted until dusk, spending the night in a victory ship. From Actium came to establish winter quarters at Samos, but learned that the soldiers chosen from all objects after the victory, and that his orders had preceded him to Brindisi, had just asking rebel rewards and licensing, initiated, full of anxiety, the way to Italy. Twice he was opposed by the storm during the voyage: first between the promontories of Peloponnesus and the Aeolian, and later near the mountains Ceramics, perished in this disaster part two of their ships liburnesas, losing his entire rig and rompiéndosele the helm. Only twenty-seven days he remained in Brindisi, to meet the demands of the soldiers went from there to Asia and Egypt for Syria, laid siege to Alexandria, where Antonio had taken refuge with Cleopatra, and became owner of some of the city. Antonio wanted to talk peace, but it was too late: Octavio oblígole to die, happening to see after his death. One of his most vehement desires was to secure Cleopatra to his triumph, as was believed to have died from the bite of an asp, made some psilos (47) sucked the poison from the wound. It gave the couple that draw on common grave, and ordered that the tomb be concluded that they had begun to build. The young Antonio, the eldest of two children that had triunvirio Fulvia was following continuous and futile entreaties to take refuge at the feet of the statue of Caesar Augustus snatched away and sent him to death. Caesarion, who claimed to have been Cleopatra Caesar, was hit while attempting to flee and delivered to the rack. As for the other children of Anthony and the queen, considered as members of their families, educators and assured position in proportion to their birth.

XVIII. By this time commanded open the tomb of Alexander the Great, got the body, was contemplating a moment he put on his head a golden crown and covered him with flowers as a token of homage. Asked if he wanted to see also Ptolomeum, replied that he had come to see a king and not dead. Egypt became a Roman province, and to ensure the supplies needed for production of Rome, sent his soldiers clean up all the channels opened by the overflowing of the Nile and that time was covered with silt. To perpetuate the memory of centuries, the glory of victory of Actium, founded near the city of Nicopolis, established quinquennial games. Expanded also the ancient temple of Apollo, adorned with a naval trophy was the site of their camp and solemnly consecrated it to Neptune and Mars.

XIX. A large number of disturbances, uprisings and conspiracies, it was informed, were suffocated by it at its source; also dominated at different times, the conspiracy of the young Lepidus, then the Varro Murena and Fannie Cepión, M. Egnatius of Aulus Rufus, Lucio Paulo, husband of his granddaughter, L. Audasio accused of forger, whom age had weakened his body and reason, of Asinius Epicardium, mestizo delivery, and finally, of Telephos, gazetteer of a slave woman, as was also threatened by the machinations of men of low extraction. Epicardium Audasio and wanted to snatch his daughter Julia and his grandson Agrippa of the islands where they were confined and present them to hosts, and Telefo, believed destined for the empire, had conceived the idea of killing Augustus and the Senate, was found also a mercenary army of Illyria, a night hiding near his bed, had penetrated as far as escaping the vigilance of the guards, who wore at her belt a hunting knife. Ignored if feigned insanity or if, indeed, had lost his mind, unable to wrest any confession under torture.

XX. By itself only directed two foreign wars, that of Dalmatia, in his youth, and the Cantabrian after the defeat of Antony. He was wounded twice in Dalmatia, one in the knee with a stone, and another in a thigh and both arms of a bridge collapse. The other two wars, headed their legacies, but took part in some expeditions Panomia and Germany, or was at least near the theater of war, going from Rome to Ravenna, Milan and Aquileia.

XXI. Submitted in person or by his generals Cantabria, Aquitaine, the Dalmatian Panomia and with all the Illyria, held the strong, the Vindelicia and Salesas peoples of the Alps, held Dacian raids destroyed most of their armies and killed them three chiefs. Drove the Germans across the Elbe, and received the submission of Ubios and sicambros, transferring and assigning to Gaul near the Rhine lands also reduced to obedience other nations uneasy and turbulent, but kept his war on any nation without just cause or pressing need, it was so far from the Empire or aspire to increase their military glory, which forced some barbarian kings to swear in the temple of Mars the Avenger, stay faithful to the peace that he requested. He demanded also to some new kind of hostages, that is, he had observed that women were estimated at some men given in that capacity. However, always left their allies the right to withdraw their hostages when they wished, and never punished her frequent rebellions and his perfidy rather than selling their prisoners, provided they had not served in neighboring countries or be free thirty years before . The reputation of strength and moderation which reached this behavior, determined by the Hindus and Scythians, of which only the name was then known, to ask through his friendship and the ambassadors of the Roman people. Also deliveries easily ceded Armenia to recover, returning, too. Upon request, the military ensigns taken from M. Crassus and M. Antonio and offering hostages also, and, finally, many princes, who vied longstanding each command, acknowledged to be nominated by him.

XXII. The temple of Janus Quirinus, which had been closed only twice since the founding of Rome, it was then three, in a course of time much shorter, being secured peace by land and sea. Twice entered Rome with the honors of an ovation, one after the battle Philippi, and the other after the war in Sicily. Seats held with three wins his victories in Dalmatia, Actium and Alexandria, and every triumph lasted three days.

XXIII. For severe and ignominious defeats suffered the Lollia and Varo, both in Germany, being the one more shameful that irreparable, the Varo could, however, be fatal to the empire, since it was put to the sword with three legions General, bequests and all auxiliaries. When the news sent to Rome to place military guards to prevent possible unrest, confirmed in his powers to provincial governors to use their experience and ability, contained in its duty to the allies, and offered great games to Jupiter for improved the situation of the Republic, as was done in the war of the Cimbri and the Marsi. It is said, finally, he experienced such despair that he grew a beard and hair for many months, sometimes banging his head against walls, and exclaiming Quintilio Varus, give me back my legions. Anniversaries of the disaster were provided for him sad and gloomy days.

XXIV. Changed many things and many more established military organization, putting into force and other time relegated to oblivion. He maintained discipline with severity, and only allowed his bequests were to see their wives in the winter months, and even this with great difficulty. A Roman knight having amputee the thumb of his two sons to avoid military service, he went to sell at auction with all their property, but seeing that rushed to buy the public consent, it did award a freedman of his who had orders to take to the fields and let free. Licensed ignominiously throughout the tenth legion, who only obeying murmuring, and other imperiously demanded that the license was granted it, but without the promised rewards for their long service. If a legion retreated, the decimated, giving only barley for every meal. Punished with death as ordinary soldiers to the centurions who left their posts. As for other crimes, punished with different degrading punishment, such as staying up all day before the general's tent, or go without a belt and a tunic, holding in his hand a far land or a handful of grass.

XXV After civil wars, failed to give the title of fellow soldiers in the speeches and edicts, calling them soldiers only, and did not allow either his sons or sons that they should give them another name when sent, believing that the Peer was a flattery was not suitable to the preservation of discipline, or the state of peace, or the majesty of the Caesars. Except for cases of fire and conspiracies that could cause shortages of food, only freed slaves enlisted twice: first for the defense of neighboring colonies to Illyria, and second, to protect the banks of the Rhine these two times were to be slaves to the wealthy men and women of Rome had purchased and manumitted in the act; colocábalos front line, without mixing with the free arm them nor as to them. Preferred to give as rewards military harnesses, collars and jewels, whose value consisted of gold and silver, or mural crowns Valarian (48), much coveted. Extremely chary of the latter, never granted to the favor, and he almost always simple soldiers. Gave to Agrippa, after his naval victory in Sicily, a standard color of the sea. Never gave these awards to those who had enjoyed the honor of triumph, even though they had taken part in expeditions and contributed to their victories, the reason was that they had been entitled to distribute as they wished these rewards. In his opinion, nothing less suited to a great master of haste and rashness, and so frequently repeated the Greek proverb: Make haste slowly, and this one, It is the prudent chief reckless, or even this: it is very soon making it very well. Also said that should only be undertaken in a war or a battle when you can expect more good than harm victory from defeat, because, he added, the war that much to earn a little adventure, it seems the man angling of gold, whose loss could not compensate any prey.

XXVI. Before the age was raised to office and honors, many of which were new building in perpetuity. At twenty invaded the consulate, march on Rome by a warning to his legions, and sending deputies to demand for him this dignity in the name of the army. As the Senate hesitated, the centurion Cornelius, who was leading the deputation, he opened his cloak, and displaying the hilt of his sword, dared to exclaim: This will, if you do not do it. It took nine years of his first to his second consulate and only one until the third. Then followed without interruption until the eleventh, and, having refused all offered then asked himself the twelfth seventeen years later, two years after the thirteenth again asked, in order to get at the Forum, as chief magistrate the Republic, to his grandchildren Gaius and Lucius, who were to enter public life. The five consulates separating the sixteenth of the eleventh were each one year, and the other not retained beyond the nine, six, four or three months, and the latter only a few hours. Just sitting, in fact, in the chair seat in front of the Capitoline temple of Jupiter on the morning of the Kalends of January, he resigned the post, naming other consul in his stead. It did not take possession of all its consulates in Rome, for the fourth began in Asia, the fifth in Samos and the eighth and ninth at Tarragona.

XXVII. For ten years he was the head of the triumvirate set up to organize the republic for some time resisted his colleagues, opposing the ban, but later deployed far more cruelty than any of them, because they at least sometimes were left soften by the entreaties of friendship, only he opposed with all his authority to forgive anyone, even his guardian outlawing C. Torani, who was also a colleague of his father Octavius in the councilor. Saturn in June referred to this other fact: After proscriptions, Lepidus excusing the past in the Senate, he hoped that clemency would finally put an end to punishments, but said Octavio, however, cease to proscribe only provided to do anything he wanted. However, this belated repentance debiese hardness which raised to the dignity of a gentleman to T. Vinius Filopemón, who was said to have hidden in your employer once banned. For many special features became odious for a triumvirate, one day, for example, who harangued the soldiers in front of the inhabitants of the surrounding fields, saw a Roman knight named Pinario furtively taking some notes, and only suspicions that a spy would kill him instantly. A Ennui Afer, consul-designate, who ridiculed an act with a joke of his, Octavio threats at him so furious that he was unhappy death. The praetor Q. Gallium approached to greet him wearing under his toga double tablets; Octavio thought they were a sword, not daring to register on the spot for fear of not finding weapons short while later he started up his stand by centurions and soldiers ordered to torture him like a slave, and not getting any confession made him beheaded, after rip his eyes with his own hands. He himself wrote about this issue that gallium had wanted to kill him at a hearing that he asked, who was imprisoned by his order was placed immediately released, and forbidden to live in Rome, and who perished in a shipwreck or at the hands of some Bandits (49). Augustus was invested in perpetuity with the power tribune (50), twice took a colleague in this dignity, each for five years. It was also vested with the perpetual vigilance of the customs and laws (51), and under this law, which was not, however, the same as censorship, established three times the census of the people: the first and third with his colleague, the second one.

XXVIII. Twice had the idea of restoring the Republic: first after the defeat of Antony, who often accused him of being the only obstacle to the restoration of freedom, and then, as a result of suffering a long illness, reaching to go home to judges and senators and delivering the accounts of the Empire. He thought, however, that this would expose their private life and deliver certain dangers recklessly the Republic to the tyranny of some ambitious and decided to continue in power, and can not say what he has to praise more, if the consequences or The reasons for this resolution. He was pleased to remember sometimes these reasons, and even released it one of his edicts. Let me state the Republic in a permanent state of splendor and security, with this I will have achieved the reward ambition, happiness is considered my work and if I can boast of having set the dying on immutable foundations. It ensures the realization of this desire, striving for that one had to lament the new order of things.

XXIX. Rome was not, in appearance, worthy of the majesty of the Empire and was subject, on the other hand, floods and fires. He knew how to embellish it in such a manner that could rightly boast of having received it let marble bricks. Also said the dangers of the future, as human wisdom can foresee. Among the many public monuments whose construction is owed mainly include the Forum and the Temple of Mars the Avenger, that of Apollo in the Palatium and Jupiter Thunderer on the Capitol. The Forum was built because the increasing number of litigants and business demanded it, and insufficient the first two. Thus, without waiting for the temple of Mars was finished, he hastened to order the special procedures in the new forum, the trial of criminal cases and the choice of judges. As far as the temple of Mars, had vowed during the war Philippi, undertaken to avenge his father. He decreed, therefore, that the Senate would meet there to discuss the wars and triumphs, that there they would leave those who marched with some control to the provinces, and that there would eventually deposit the insignia of the triumph of victorious generals. The temple of Apollo at the Palatium, was built in part of his house destroyed by lightning, which had declared that God Scryers pedia home, adding porches and a Latin and Greek library. In his later years often summoned the Senate and went to him for recognizing decurias of judges. The temple of Jupiter the Thunderer was built by him in memory of his escape from danger during a night march, in one of his expeditions against the Cantabrian, a lightning struck, in fact, her litter, killing the slave who went before him with a torch in his hand. He also perform other work under another name than his, for example, those of his grandchildren, his wife and sister-such are the portal of the basilica of Gaius and Lucius, the porticoes of Livia and Octavian, and the theater of Marcellus. Often also called upon the chief citizens to beautify the city, each according to his means, or with new monuments, or repairing and beautifying the old, the only desire was to be lifted because of large number of buildings. Marcius Philippus raised the temple of Hercules and Museums, L. Cornificius, that of Diana; Asinius Pollio, the lobby of Liberty Munatius Plauco, the temple of Saturn, Cornelius Balbus, a theater Stantilio Faure, an amphitheater, and finally, M. Agrippa large number of magnificent buildings.

XXX. Rome divided into sections and neighborhoods, ordering the surveillance of the sections to the annual judges (elected officials, the tribunes, the magistrates), who luckily managed and neighborhood inspectors who lived in them and were chosen from among the people. Established nightly rounds to fire, and to prevent flooding of the Tiber was clean and widen its channel, had long blocked by the ruins and shaken by the collapse of buildings. To facilitate access everywhere to Rome, took charge of repairing the Via Flaminia to Rimini, and wanted to imitate him, every citizen who has received the honors of victory, paving a road would employ the money that belonged to its share of the spoils. Rebuilt sacred buildings of the time the action and fires had destroyed, and like the others He adorned with precious present, leading at once to the shrine of Jupiter Capitoline sixteen thousand pounds weight of gold and fifty million sesterces in gems and pearls.

XXXI. Lepidus died, and got by him Pontifex Maximus, who in life than that he dared not take away was to collect and burn more than two thousand volumes of Greek and Latin predictions that were distributed to the public and had only one suspect. He retained only the Sibylline books, making them a espurgo and enclosing two golden caskets, under the statue of Apollo Palatinus. Reduced the method used formerly in the march of the year, and arranged by Julius Caesar, and in which the negligence of the pontiffs had introduced new disorder and confusion. In this work gave his name to the month called Sextilis (52), in preference to September in which he was born, because at that consulate and received his first achieved its major victories. The number of priests, their dignity and to their privileges, especially those of the Vestal Virgins. Having killed one of them was to replace (53), and like many citizens ask please not bring their children to the risks of the draw, he said that if one of their daughters had reached the age required to have volunteered. Restored also many ancient ceremonies fall into disuse, including the prediction of Health, the honors due to flamin Dial, the Lupercalia, the Secular Games and compitales. Forbade the run in the Lupercalia festivities before the age of puberty, also banning young people from both sexes in attendance for the secular games to evening shows if not accompanied by any relatives older than themselves. Established two annual games in honor of the gods compitales, which should be decorated with spring flowers and summer. Honored almost as much as the immortal gods memory of great men so weak that they learned early the power of Rome to raise so considerable degree of development. For this reason did restore the monuments erected those, leaving its glorious records. At his command were placed all its triumphal statues in suit under the two gates of his Forum, and declared in an edict that he wanted his example serves to be tried while he lived himself and all his successors princes. He also moved the statue of Pompey the room where they killed Caesar, under a marble arch, opposite the palace next to the theater of Pompey himself.

XXXII. He corrected many abuses as detestable as pernicious, born of the customs and licensing of civil wars and peace itself was unable to destroy. Most highway robbers were publicly weapons under the pretext of attending to their defense, and travelers of free or servile condition were trapped on the roads and shut without distinction in the workshops of the slave owners. Had also been formed under the title of new guilds, associations of malefactors who committed all sorts of crimes. Augusto robbers held the guards at establishing appropriate points, visited the workshops of slaves and disbanded all guilds, except the old and legal. He burned the records which were registered in former Treasury debtors, to thereby end the litigation that had become home such records. Certain parts of the city, claiming that the public domain with questionable titles, awarded them to their owners. Processes dismissed former defendants, whose punishment served only to gladden his adversaries, and referred to the possibility of the same penalty as they had been able to speak out against anyone who tried to chase them again. So that no crime goes unpunished and no business is carried with neglect, restored, on the other hand, work more than thirty days free of him, sets fees. At three judges decurias added the fourth, composed of people below the Census of knights, which was called the ducenarios decuria of taking charge of the business view of medium importance. He chose judges from the age of twenty, that is, five years before what had been done before, and as many citizens refused the honor of these functions, authorized, though reluctantly, to each decuria to enjoy her holiday by year since, following the established custom, were suspended the trial of censorship during the months of November and December.

Part biography of Julius Caesar

2010-03-05T10:15:00.000-08:00

Bookseller: The Twelve Caesars
Gaius Suetonius

Part biography of Julius Caesar

LIV. Neither their husbands or their magistrates showed disinterest. It is proven in the writings of his time, that being proconsul in Spain received quantities of its allies, ordered by him, to help pay his debts, and gave the plunder many cities of Lusitania, despite having offered no resistance and having doors open upon arrival. In Gaul looted private altars and temples of the gods, filled with rich offerings, and destroyed some cities before prey for the sake of punishment for crimes they had committed. This conduct gave much gold, which was sold in Italy and the provinces the price of three thousand sesterces the pound. During his first consulate in the Capitol stole three thousand pounds of gold weight and replaced it with an equal amount of gilded copper. Sold alliances and kingdoms, thus only Ptolemy, on his behalf and that of Pompey, about six thousand talents. Later, only at the cost of sacrilege and rapine very evident, could defray the enormous expenses of the civil war, its triumphs and spectacles.

LV. In eloquence and military talent equaled the most famous Caesar and even exceeded. His accusation against Dolabella was unanimously considered to be among the first speakers. Cicero, in his letter to Brutus, when he lists the speakers, said that she saw who should give Caesar, and adds, in his speech that has elegance and brilliance, magnificence and grandeur, and Cornelius Nepos, talking about it says: What you dare to enteponerle speaker among those who have cultivated this art only? Who exceeds the abundance and vigor of thought? Who's most elegant and distinguished in the expression?. It seems that very early adopted the kind of eloquence Caesar Strabo, and reproduced verbatim in his divination many paragraphs of the speech Pro Sardis This speaker. It is also said that he spoke loudly, being beautiful, energetic and enthusiastic action. He spoke a few sentences, but others falsely attributed to him, and rightly regarded prayer Augusto Pro Q. Metellus rather unfaithful copies of the clerks, who could not keep the speed of his diction, which, as work published by himself. In many specimens Pro Metello not see written, but wrote Metellus, though it's Cesar speaking to vindicate himself at the same time that Metellus, the accusations of their common enemies. Augustus also doubt in attributing the speech to the soldiers of Spain, although there are two with this title, as pronounced by the first battle and the other before the last, as Pollio Asinius in the last battle, the unexpected attack of the enemies give him time for his harangue.

LVI. We also left comments on his campaigns in Gaul and the civil war against Pompey. On the history of wars of Alexandria, Africa and Spain, who is the author ignores. Cicero, in his letter to Brutus, speaks thus of comments: Your "Comments" is an excellent book, his style is sober, pure, elegant, stripped of all pomp of language, unadorned beauty and wanting to provide materials prepared to future historians might have done something nice for the fools who did not stop overloaded with frivolous trappings such natural graces, but aborted in discrete desire to address this issue. Hirtius also says, speaking of them Comments: This is so undeniable superiority, which appears to have removed, rather than given the power to historians writing after him. We have more reason than anyone to admire this book, everyone knows how much more talent and strength is written, we know also how easily and quickly wrote it. Pollio Asinius intended that these reviews are not always accurate and faithful, for having given too much faith in Caesar's accounts of his legacy, and for having altered consciously or failure to report the truth of his own deeds, believing that should be reviewed and corrected. He left also a treatise in two books on Analogy, another in the same number of books, called Anticatón, and a poem entitled El Camino. The first was composed by passing the Alps to join his army, after presiding over the election of Gaul Citerior the second, the time of the battle of Munda, and the last twenty-fourth day he used to travel from Rome to the Further Spain. There are also letters to the Senate, and was apparently the first to write their communications on folded sheets in the form of trade, since until then had written and consuls general to the full extent of the leaf. Are retained, finally, his letters to Cicero, as well as he wrote to his friends about his domestic affairs. For business secrets used a way to figure that made sense unintelligible letters being arranged so that could not form any words, to decipher them has to change the order of the letters, taking the fourth by the first, ie d by a, and so others. Cítanse also some writings of the time of his childhood and youth: the Praises of Hercules, a tragedy entitled Oedipus and a collection of selected phrases. Augustus forbade the publication of these writings in a letter, short and simple, aimed at Pompey Macer, who was responsible to care for their libraries.

LVII. Caesar was very skillful in handling weapons and horses and stand up to the incredible fatigue, on the march preceded the army, sometimes on horseback, and more often on foot, bareheaded, despite the sun and the rain. Bridging longer distances with incredible speed, without luggage, in a rental truck, traveling in this way until one hundred miles per day. If you hold the rivers, going swimming or on bottles filled, and often anticipated his post.

LVIII. Doubt whether he was more cautious than bold in their explorations. Never led his army ambushes fertile ground previously unexplored paths, did not cross over to Britain before securing for himself the status of ports, navigation mode, and allowing the landing sites. This honor is so cautious, having learned one day that had besieged their camp in Germany, wears a suit Gaul and across the army of the besiegers, meets his camp. Just as happened in winter, from Brindisi to Dirrachio, through enemy fleets, as, despite his frequent messages, did not reach the troops had orders to follow him, ended up riding one night in a car, head coverings, unmentioned, nor allow the pilot to bow to the storm, until he was in danger of sinking into the waves.

LIX. Religious scruples never led him to abandon or defer their businesses. Although the victim escaped the slaughter of the sacrificial knife, why not stopped marching against Scipio and Juba. On another occasion, having fallen to jump ship, turned in his favor the omen, saying: You are mine, Africa. To circumvent the predictions that that land victories fatally united to the name of the Scipios, constantly in their camps had an obscure family descendant Cornelia, and abject man who by his deranged behavior was given the nickname Salucio.

LX. With respect to the battles, not geared solely for thoughtful plans to arrest, but also taking advantage of opportunities; happened many times he attacked immediately after a march, or so bad that nobody could suppose time had been set in motion, and only in the last years of his life was more cautious in a fight, convinced that, having achieved so many victories, should not tempt fortune, and that a victory would always win unless they lose by a defeat. It never defeated an enemy without immediately seize their camp, nor allowed to recover from the terror of the vanquished. When victory was doubtful, did all the horses away, starting with his own, to impose on soldiers removing the need to overcome all means of escape.

LXI. He rode a single horse, whose hooves seemed human feet as they were split by way of fingers. This horse was born at home and the augurs had promised his own empire in the world, which is why I raised with careful dedication, taking charge of taming himself, later erecting a statue in front of the Mother Temple of Venus.
LXII. Viósele alone often restore their line of battle, when she hesitated, launched before the fugitives, stop abruptly and force, sword to the throat, back to enemy. He did this despite the fact that sometimes came to dominate the terror in those terms, a standard-bearer, thus detained, threatened him with his sword, and another, whose eagle had captured, was left in the hands.

LXIII. In other cases showed signs of greater value still. After the battle of Pharsalia, having sent its troops to Asia and passing him in a little boat the Hellespont, found C. Casio, one of his enemies, with ten galleys of war, instead of flying, marched up to him, summoned to surrender, and received him, pleading in his ship.

LXIV. Attacked a bridge in Alexandria, but the unexpected departure of the enemy was forced to jump into a boat, pursued by large numbers of enemies, plunged into the sea, swam and walked two hundred yards of space to another ship, taking his right hand out water for not wearing mojasen writings, and being caught with his mantle of teeth generally do not abandon that pledge to the enemy.

LXV. He appreciated the soldier only for its value, not their behavior or their fortune, and sometimes treated him with great severity and others with great indulgence. Not always and everywhere was hard, but he was always stern face of the enemy, maintaining strict discipline such cases. It announced to his army days of march or the battle, holding and constantly waiting for his orders and always ready to go at the first sign of where to take him. I often set in motion without need, especially on holidays and rainy. Sometimes gave orders not to lose sight of him, and suddenly away, day or night, and forced the pace to tire of those who followed him without reaching it.

LXVI. When the army before it was preceded by fearsome reputation, not to his reassuring denying or ignoring the opposing forces, but rather the exaggerated until the lie. Thus, when the proximity of Juba had inspired fear in the hearts of all men, gathered them and said: Know that within a few days the king will be in front of you with ten legions, thirty thousand horse, a hundred thousand men light infantry and three hundred elephants. Abstain all questions and conjectures and rest in me, I know what has to be done; embark on an old boat to disseminate rumors and will go to where the wind.

LXVII. Faults is not always punished nor cared that had relation between punishment and crime, was scathing with deserters and rebels, and gentle with others. Sometimes, after a great battle and a great victory, bestowed on the soldiers and allowed them to ordinary duties given to all the excesses of unbridled license, as soldiers used to say, even perfumed, could fight well. In the speeches did not call soldiers used the word most flattering of companions liked them well in uniform, and gave arms adorned with silver and gold, both to demonstrate as to fire on the day of combat for fear of losing them. Such was his love for them when he learned Tituria defeat grew a beard and hair and not cut them until after avenge. This inspired them unswerving loyalty to his person and unbeatable value.

LXVIII. At the beginning of civil war, the centurions of every legion comprometiéronse to supply each rider paid out of his own particular, and all the soldiers to serve for free, without rations or pay, the richest must meet the needs of the poorest. During that war so long none left him, and even some who were taken prisoner refused life offered to them provided arms against him again. Besieged and besiegers so patiently endured hunger and other deprivations, which Dirrachio site, viewed by Pompey the kind of bread that fed herbs, said he had to deal with wild animals, making it disappear at once for fear of that this testimony to the patience and tenacity of his enemies sow confusion in the army. A proof of his indomitable courage we have it in the fact that after only setback suffered near Dirrachio, demanded punishment themselves, and generally rather than to punish them had to console them. On the other battles easily undone, despite their numerical inferiority, the many troops who opposed them. A single cohort of the legion sixteenth, responsible for defending a fuertecillo, held for several hours the attack of four legions of Pompey, succumbing at last, almost intact, under a cloud of arrows, which were found inside the fort percent thirty thousand. Such bravery would not cause surprise if taken in isolation the facts of some of his soldiers. I will cite only the centurion soldier Casio Sceva and C. Acilius. Sceva, despite having cast an eye and pierced his thigh and shoulder, and broken the shield with one hundred twenty blows, remained strong in the door of a fort whose custody had been entrusted. Acilius, in a naval battle near Marseille, imitating the example given Cinegiro memorable among the Greeks, with the right hand grabbed an enemy vessel is the cut, but not stopped jumping the ship, refusing to shield a few opposed him.

LXIX. No sedition was in the army during the ten years of war in Gaul, broke some during the civil, but then dominated with authority rather than indulgence. Never give in to the mutineers, but constantly went to meet him. Plasencia graduated in all the hosts ninth, although Pompey was still in arms, and not without great job, after numerous and urgent pleas and have punished the guilty, agreed to rehabilitate it.

LXX. As the soldiers of the Tenth Legion asked one day in Rome's license and rewards, uttering terrible threats to the city exposed to serious hazards, even though time was on the war in Africa and although his friends tried in vain to stop him, Caesar did not hesitate to make the mutineers and graduates. But in a word, calling them citizens instead of soldiers, completely changed their provisions. We are soldiers! "Cried at once, and followed him to Africa, in spite of himself, which did not prevent the instigators punished with the loss of one third of the booty and the land they were intended.

LXXI. From his youth shone Caesar for his zeal and loyalty to their clients. He defended Masinter, a youth of distinguished family, Hiempsal against the king, and did it with so much energy in the heat of the discussion took down his beard to Juba, the son of this king. It was declared a tax client of the king, and he then arracóle hands of those who carried him and kept him hidden for a long time at home, and even later, when he left for Spain, on leaving the Pretura led him in his bunk, under the protection of their lictors and many friends.

LXXII. Caesar always treated his friends with so many considerations and goodness, that had fallen suddenly ill C. Oppio, who accompanied him along a rough and difficult, he relinquished the only hut they found and lay it on the ground outdoors. When he reached the sovereign power, amounted to the first honors to some low-class men, and being blamed for it, he replied: If bandits and murderers had helped me to defend my rights and dignity, just show them my gratitude.

LXXIII. Moreover, never conceived of such deep enmity that the wastes thus proffered hand. C. Memmi had attacked him in his speeches with extraordinary vehemence, and with great violence Caesar answered him in writing, and yet, shortly after helped him with all his influence to get the consulate. When C. Calvo, epigrams addressed to him defamatory, sought reconciliation with him through the mediation of some friends, he anticipated writing. Valerio Catulio confessed that in his verses on Mamurra had marked with an eternal stigma on the same day and gave him satisfaction, he admitted to his table without ever breaking their terms of hospitality with the father of the poet.

LXXIV. He was gentle by nature even in retaliation. When the pirates seized, of which he was imprisoned, and those in that situation crucify swore, did not sink in this instrument of torture but after strangling them. Fagita Cornelius had all sorts of traps ready in the time to get rid of Sila, it ensure he obliged, though sick, to change every night for asylum, and had not ceased to trouble him but by splendid reward however, never wanted to take revenge on him. Philemon, a slave and his secretary, who had promised to poison their enemies, from imposing a punishment other than death, when she could subject him to horrific tortures. Called as a witness against P. Clodius accused of sacrilege and convicted of adultery with his wife Pompeii, said they had seen nothing, although his mother Aurelia and his sister Julia had told the judges the whole truth: and as he wondered why, then, Pompeii had repudiated, he replied that mine must be as free from suspicion as a crime,

LXXV. They must, however, mainly be admired his moderation and clemency during the Civil War and after his triumphs. Pompey had said he would consider no enemies to defend the Republic and declare that Caesar would have the friends that remained neutral between the two parties, and those they grant degrees on the recommendation of Pompey's army to pass autorizólos rival. At the site of Lerda (Lérida) is locked friendly relations between the two armies, in favor of negotiations between the leaders for the surrender of the square, but abruptly abandoned the project and Petreius Afranio, posing with knives to soldiers Caesar who were in his camp: even this act of perfidy might lead to reprisals. In the battle of Pharsalia he ordered it not to make people hurt and no soldier of the opposite party who is not allowed to keep what he wanted, nor was his enemy knows that no more than perish in battle, except Afranio, Fausto and L. Young Caesar, and it is said that they were not killed by his orders, although the first two were in revolt against him after having been pardoned, and the third was cruelly destroyed by fire and sword to the slaves and freedmen of his benefactor, sending to slaughter the beasts that Caesar had bought for shows. Finally, in recent times has enabled all the grace which had failed to return to Italy and still aspire to officers and magistrates. Rose again the statues of Sylla and Pompey had overthrown the people. When he knew he was being hatched against any casualty or project who spoke ill, he preferred to restrain the guilty punished. So, having discovered conspiracies and night meetings, I limit his revenge to declare, through an edict, that he knew them. To those who reviled him in speeches, was content to publicly advise them not to persist in it, leading to suffer, without complaint, that Aulus Cecina tarnish his reputation in a libel libelous and defamatory Pitolao in a poem.

LXXVI. Impútanse, however, Caesar's actions and words that show the abuse of power and appear to justify his death. Not content to accept the highest honors, such as the consulate for life, the perpetual dictatorship, censorship of morals, the title of Emperor, the enactment of Father of the Nation, a statue among the kings, a kind of throne in the orchestra, but admitted also that it enact other far superior to human greatness, was indeed golden chair in the Senate and in his court, the pomp of the circus in a car when it was religiously take his picture (35), temples and altars and statues beside those of the gods was like these holy bed, a Flemish priests Luperci and privilege, in order, giving its name to one month per year. There are no distinctions do not receive according to his whim and that it left the same way. Consul for the third and fourth time, was limited to the title, and was content to exercise the dictatorship that had been granted with consulates, was replaced two consuls for the last three months of these two years, during which met only ballot for the election of tribunes and aldermen of the town. Prefects established in place of magistrates, to manage his own subordinates the interests of the city. Having a consul died suddenly the day before the Kalends of January vacant clothed with dignity, for the few hours remaining, the first thing requested. With the same disregard for established laws and customs of his country for many years magistrates, consular insignia awarded to two former magistrates, rose to the rank of citizens and even some Gallic senators semibarbarian; granted the quartermaster of the currency and government revenue to slaves to their home, and left the care and command of three legions Rufión left Alexandria, the son of a freed slave and companion of his orgies.

LXXVII. Cesar used to publicly pronounce words, says T. Ampio reveal no less pride that their acts: The Republic is a name without reality or value. Sila know the science of government, because deposed dictatorship. The men were talking in front with more respect and consideration for laws what they say. It reached the point of arrogance, which he announced an augur gloomy forebodings after a sacrifice because it was not found in the victim's heart, he answered that he would make the predictions more happy whenever he wanted and was not showing an animal miracle heartless (36).

LXXVIII. What attracted him, however, violent and implacable hatred was this: They had left the corporation to submit senators decrees very flattering for him, and was seated at the Mother Temple of Venus. Some writers say that Cornelius Balbus held him when he went up, others that did not move, and having told C. Stand in Trebacio foot, gave him a stern look. This snub seems all the more intolerable, since he himself, in one of his triumphs, when, passing the cart before the seats of the tribunes, one of whom, Pontius Aquila, did not rise, was so profound indignation that came to exclaim Tribune Aquila, ask me the Republic, and for many days did not promise anyone anything without adding this condition ironic: Of course, if allowed by Pontius Aquila.

LXXIX. To this grave outrage Caesar to the Senate added a touch of pride even more hurtful. He returned to Rome after the customary sacrifice of Latino fairs, where, amid the extraordinary and wild cheers of the people, a man, standing out from the crowd, put on his statue a laurel wreath tied with a white ribbon. Ling Epidio Tribunes Flavo Cesetio ordered to remove the crown and reduced prison who had put but Caesar saw that this attempt of kingship had been so ill success, or pretended that he had been deprived of the glory of turning, hard apostrophized the tribunes and stripped of his authority, he could not escape the shameful censorship had coveted the royalty, although the people responded a day who greeted him with the name of king: I Caesar, not king, and despite also that at parties and make his rejection Lupercalia lead to the Capitol, the statue of Jupiter, the crown which the Consul Antonio had wanted to put him in the head repeatedly on the podium of the speeches. On this issue, there spread a rumor that became fairly consistently, ensuring that planned to move to Alexandria or the capital Trojan Empire forces, exhausted after leaving Italy with special cams, and instructed his friends the government of Rome, added that in the first meeting of Senate quindecenviro L. Cotta was proposing to give to Caesar the title of king since it was written in the books of fate that only a king could defeat the Parthians.

LXXX. Fearing the conspirators forced to assent to this proposition, considered necessary to expedite the implementation of its business. They met, therefore, and took decisions jointly agreed before isolation between two or three people in the village was unhappy state of affairs, expressing his disgust at every opportunity to tyranny, and openly asking avengers. When foreigners were granted the title of senators, were set these posters everywhere: Hi all, subsection f show the way the new senators of the Senate, and also sang in the streets:

Gallos Caesar in triumphum ducit, idem in curiam.
Galli clavum sesmserunt Bracas deposuerunt latum (37)

Having announced the censor in the theater, as usual, the entrance to the consul Q. Maximus, whom Caesar had substituted for three months gritáronle everywhere that was not consul. Following the removal of the tribunes Cesecio and Marullo, at the first meeting of the polls showed many consuls Newsletter Name??? At the foot of the statue of L. Gross wrote: I wish I lived!, And under Caesar:

Brutuss quia regis ejecit, consul primus factus est:
Hic, quia ejecit consuls, factus est rex postrema (38)

The number of conspirators amounted to over sixty, with C. Cassius and Marcus and Decimus Brutus leaders of the conspiracy. These first deliberated whether to divide, some will precipitate from the bridge during the election field of Mars (39), at the time that the tribes convened for the election, while others expect him down to kill him, or if you attack on the Via Sacra or the entrance to the theater, but being ready for the Ides of March a meeting of the Senate in the hall of Pompey, unanimously agreed not to seek more appropriate time or place.

LXXXI. Prodigies obvious Caesar announced his approaching end. Few months before the settlers to whom the law had given Julia lands in Campania to build houses, destroyed ancient graves, and with so much zeal as in the excavations that were used to find ancient vessels work. Kept in a tomb which, they said, the remains of Capys, founder of Capua, found a brass plate in letters and words preserved Greek inscription: When you discover the ashes of Capys, a descendant of Iulo perish at the hands of their relatives, but will soon be avenged by the misfortunes of Italy and to not think that this is fable invented on a whim, I will cite in my support for Cornelius Balbus, an intimate friend of Caesar. A few dates before his death knew that horses consecrated by him to the gods before crossing the Rubicon, and had left to wander without a master, refused to eat and cried, for his part, warned Spurinna Scryer for a sacrifice , to be on guard the threatened danger to the Ides of March. On the eve of the same ides, having entered the Senate floor, called Pompey a wren with a sprig of laurel in its beak, birds of different classes, output from a nearby forest, rushed upon him and tore. Finally, the night before the day of his death, believed in a dream that went back on the clouds and put his hand in Jupiter and in turn his wife Calpurnia dreamed that collapsed the roof of his house and killed her husband in her arms as the door of his room burst open by themselves. All these predictions and the poor state of his health made him hesitate for a long time about whether to remain at home the following day defer to what the Senate had proposed, but urged by Decimus Brutus not to wait in vain for the senators who were meeting since he left home early into the fifth hour. On the way a stranger presented him a letter in which he revealed the conspiracy, Caesar took it and joined the other he held in his left hand with the intention of reading later. Victims who blew themselves up at once gave unfavorable omens, but to dominate their religious scruples, he entered the Senate and teasing Spurinna said that his predictions were wrong because they had come the Ides of March not to bring any disgrace, to which he replied speakers arrived, but had not yet happened.

LXXXII. As he sat down, the conspirators surrounded him on the pretext of welcoming, in the act Cimber Telio, which was tasked with starting, acercósele to have a request, but refused to listen and indicating with a gesture that left his request for another time he took his toga by both shoulders, and while Caesar exclaimed: This is violence, one of the Casca, who was behind him, stabbed him more down the throat. Cogióle Caesar's arm, I went through with the punch and tried to get up, but another blow stopped him. Viewing daggers then raised all over, wrap the head in his toga and low with his left hand cloths on her legs, to avoid becoming more nobly, keeping hidden the lower body. Twenty-three received wounds, and only the first gave a groan, without uttering a word. However, some writers refer to seeing him go against M. Gross, said in Greek: You too, my son. When they saw him dead, they all fled, leaving for some time lying on the ground, until finally three slaves brought him home on a litter, from which hung one of his arms. According to testimony from the medical Antiscio among all fatal injuries was only the second he had received in the chest. The conspirators wanted to drag his body into the Tiber, awarding their goods to the State and annul its provisions, but the fear they instilled the consul M. Antony and Lepidus, head of the cavalry, made them give up his plan.

LXXXIII. At the request of his father L. Ram opened his will, giving him at home reading of Antonio. Caesar had done in the last days of September, in possession of Lavícum, entrusting their care after the superior of the vestal virgins. Q. says Tuberón that all he did from his first consulate until the civil war began instituting heir of all his property to Ch. Pompey, and had said so in their speeches to the army. But in the last instituted three heirs, who were the grandchildren of his sisters, namely: C. Octavian three quarters, and L. Pinario with Q. Pedio, the Left, in the last clause adopted to C. Octavio and gave it its name, appointed guardian of her son, for the case in which one was born, the majority of which wounded him, figuring Decimus Brutus entered in the second class of heirs. Bequeathed, finally, the Roman people his gardens near the Tiber and three hundred sesterces per citizen.

LXXXIV. Posted on the day of his funeral pyre was erected in the Campus Martius near the tomb of Julia, and erect in front of the rostrum of the chapel golden speeches by the model of the Temple of Venus Mother placed in it a ivory bed covered in purple and gold, and the head of this bed a trophy, in the dress she wore to kill him. Not enough judging day for the solemn procession of those who wanted to bring these funeral, it was decided that each would go to deposit their gifts in the field of Mars. In the games own verses sung to excite sympathy for the dead and anger against the murderers, they were taken from Pacuvius in his trial on weapons of Achilles:

Men servasse, ut essent qui me perderent? (40)

and passages of the Electra Attilio, they could offer the same allusions. The Consul Antonio did that instead of eulogy, were read by a herald-queries the Senate gave Caesar all divine and human honor, and the oath, moreover, that required all of one's health, for their half added a few words to this reading. Judges assets that had just ceased to hold office, the Forum took the floor in front of the rostrum of the speeches. They wanted a body to be burned in the temple of Jupiter Capitoline, others in the village of Pompey, but suddenly, two men, wearing a sword at his belt and two darts in hand, set it on fire with torches, and soon began throwing it all dry wood, the chairs in the stands as the judges and lay to hand. The flute players and comedians, who had dressed for this solemn occasion costumes dedicated to triumphal pomp, was stripped of them, smashed and thrown into the flames, the legionary likewise threw the weapons that had been decorated for the funeral and the majority of women took to turn jewelry, and even the bulls and pretexts for their children. Large number of foreigners took part in that public mourning successive approximations to the fire and expressing their sorrow at the way each of his land to be felt mainly Jews, who looked after many nights beside the ashes.

LXXXV. After the funeral ended, people with torches ran to the houses of Brutus and Cassius, costing reject effort. In his way he met Helvio Cinna, and took from Cornelius, he had delivered the previous day a vehement speech against Caesar, and killed him and ran after his head stuck on a pike. Later in the forum arose a column of Numidian marble, one piece and more than twenty feet high, with the inscription: THE FATHER OF THE NATION, it was customary for a long time to offer sacrifices at the foot of it, make Feedback and complaints finish some swearing by the name of Caesar.

LXXXVI. Caesar had infused some of his relatives suspect he did not want to live longer and that this indifference, which came from his poor health, made him despise the warnings of religion and the advice of his friends. They claim other than reassured by the last Senate-consultants and their oath to him, had dismissed the Spanish guard who followed him sword in hand. Others attribute, however, preferred the idea of succumbing to treachery of his enemies have to fear them continuously ... According to some, used to say that preservation was more interested in the Republic that he himself, that he had bought for her since ancient glory and power, but that the Republic if he were to perish, would not enjoy peace of mind and fall into appalling evils civil war.

LXXXVII. In general all agree, however, that his death was on a little less as he had desired. Reading a day, indeed, in Xenophon, Cyrus, in his last illness, had given certain orders relating to the funeral, expressed his distaste for a death so slow, and expressed his desire that was quick. The same day before he died he was having dinner at the home of M Lepidus, and being asked about it more palatable death, replied: The sudden and unexpected.

LXXXVIII. He succumbed to the fifty-six years old, and was placed on the number of gods, not only by decree, but by the unanimous feeling of the people, convinced of his divinity. During the games that promised to hold, and that gave him his heir Augustus, appeared a star with hair, which stood at the eleventh hour and it shone for seven consecutive days, believed that the soul of Caesar was received in heaven, and this was the reason that he represented with a star on his head. Ordered walled up the door of the room where he was killed; parricide summon the Ides of March and forbade the senators gathered on that day.

LXXXIX. Almost none of the murderers died a natural death and was survived more than three years. They were all doomed, killing everyone differently, some in wrecks, some in combat and some digging with the same knife that wounded Caesar.

Notes

(1) They believe the scholars a gap that exists here, Suetonius had in their opinion, give details of Caesar's childhood.
2) Ensures that Waseling Caesar was appointed priest of Jupiter in the year 667, that is, at the age of thirteen; Paterculus Velleius says, meanwhile, that Cesar, he was barely out of infancy, puer Paene Mario Cinnaque flamen creatus dials. Suetonius Perhaps I mean that when it was already repudiated Cossutia. The distinctive Flemish dialis or priest of Jupiter were a lictor, an official chair and gown pretext. Could come to his office in the Senate, and nobody could work in his presence. On the way out before him an usher (proclamator) responsible for warning the workers to suspend their work. They were always chosen from among the patricians, just as the priests of Mars and Romulus. The office of priest of Jupiter was one of the high dignitaries of the Empire, notwithstanding the obligations and vexatious restrictions behaved. In no case could, for example, rely on horse, nor spend the night outside the city. His wife (flamin) was also under special obligations, but his wife could not repudiate it, and if he died, the flamin had to resign because she could not perform certain religious ceremonies. Cesar had not taken office and was able to divorce his wife, as Sila stripped of the priesthood.
(3) We know the great respect that inspired the intervention of the Vestal Virgins of which had even the right to pardon the criminal penalty to be imposed, if by chance you were in its path.
(4) Long before Sulla had divined Caesar, seeing it as real or feigned nonchalance, the lacticlavia barely clung in the belt, he kept saying to the nobles:
"Beware of this little loose belt.
Over twenty years later, when Cesar projects were no longer a secret to anyone, even his effeminate manners deceiving to Cicero, who said: "I clearly tyrannical view in all their actions and projects, but when I look at his hair combed so artistically when I see him scratching his head with the usual finger-often reproached with the elegant of Rome can not believe that ponders the terrible appointed to overthrow the Republic. " And when at last he became the owner of all the great smile he answered those who upbraided him for his little insight: "What do you want? I tricked her belt. "
(5) Throughout her life she would have disapproved of all this shameful trade verses on the edicts in the Senate, on the rostrum of the speeches and even in the songs of the soldiers.
(6) The most precious military order, and granted for saving a citizen. Which had obtained was in the theater, where he sat among the senators, their entry will spectators stood respectfully.
(7) Plutarch relates the fact more widely. See the Life of Cesar in the Parallel Lives of the celebrated writer published in our collection.
(8) In each legion included six military tribunes in command under the orders of the consuls one after another, usually for three months. In the field the tribune commanding centuries or a thousand men.
(9) In the year 360 of Rome establecióse the habit of praise in public at the woman who died in old age as a reward for having given once all the gold he had, in order to complete the amount to be paid by the Gauls the ransom of Rome. Until then, this honor was reserved for men. "But," says Plutarch such custom did not reach young women, the first being Caesar delivered the eulogy of his dead wife very young. This innovation made him honor, he won public favor and made him dear to the people who saw in this a test sensitivity of its soft and honored customs. "
(10) quaestors (which Sila large number of 8 to 20 and Cesar to 40) were the receivers-general, the treasurers of the Republic. Annual march to the provinces, together every one of a consul, praetor or a proconsul, after which possessed the principal authority. When he left the province, General shall serve the quaestor, this charged, in effect, contributions and taxes, to sell the loot and took care of provisions. Was preceded by lictors with fasces, at least in his province and his craft, considered the first step in the career of honors, led into the Senate.
(11) According to Plutarch, it was the sight of a statue of Alexander but the reading of the life of this prince, which drew tears to Caesar Plutarch relates, moreover, this fact at the time of Cesar Pretura in Spain , and not its quaestorship, as Suetonius. Cesar's words are, however,
reason to Suetonius, since at the time of his Pretura was thirty-seven Aryans, and in the quaestorship thirty-three, who were the experienced Alexander.
(12) According to Plutarch, Caesar had this dream in the night before the crossing of the Rubicon, that is, eighteen years later.
(13) The Pontifex Maximus was elected by the people. He lived in a public building, its position was firm and authority. can say that unlimited. According to the testimony of Dionysius of Halicarnassus. not realized, indeed, of his conduct or the Senate or the people, and was mandated to prosecute all cases relating to sacred things. His presence was indispensable in public ceremonies, in games or performances given by the judges, when directed prayers to the gods, when they dedicated their temples etc. Also sometimes the Pontifex Maximus and his colleague had the right to life and death, but the people could review the sentence.
(14) The magistrates were elected in the elections and for centuries with the same formalities that the consuls and had no more than that these magistrates whose functions sometimes. He presided over the assemblies of people, and if necessary, could convene the Senate, which cast their votes after consular males. It gave public games. For the administration of justice, were they who appoint the judges or a jury, and sentencing. Usually had their court at the Forum, that honor did not have lower magistrates, and before them stood a spear and a sword. In Rome, the fasces preceded by two lictors with six out of town. The minister also accompanied or bailiffs (ministri apparitores), secretaries (scribes) who transcribed his sentences, ujires (Accensi) responsible for the subpoenas. There were only two magistrates first one (urbanus) for citizens and another (peregrinus) for foreigners. When Sicily and Sardinia were reduced to provinces, created two others for them to send them. The conquest of the Espafias (Citerior and additional) gave rise also to the appointment of two others. Two of these six judges remained in Itom and the other four provinces in which the fate and the Senate divided between them. Cesar was sent to Spain Ulterior.
(14a). Plutarch cites a fact which proves, on the contrary that, despite the danger he had run, Caesar returned to the Senate to justify the suspicions that had been designed against, receiving violent reproaches. As the session lasts longer than usual, the people flocked, surrounded the Senate shouting threats and requested between dejasen out Cesar. Cato feared that the populace of Rome, which had placed all their hopes in Caesar, pass on to bigger and advised the Senate would make him a monthly distribution of wheat, which only had to increase recurrent expenditure of the year 5,500,000 sesterces. This prudent policy for the moment vanished terror of the Senate, weakened or even reversed much of the influence of Cesar, in a time when the authority of the Pretura would make it much more dangerous. (See Plutarch. The Life of Cesar.)
(15) The Capitol, burned in time of Sulla, in 671, was rebuilt and dedicated by Lutatius Catullus.
(16) was it in the number of the conspirators. First inform his mistress Fulvia plot to speak of it entirely your project also to assassinate him.
(17) See Plutarch's account of the events during his reign of Caesar in Spain.
(18) Author of the history of war and civil italics Mario-who was writing then, "gave him five years after Cicero the beautiful and famous letter in which he requested to write the story of his consulate.
(19) The trades of votes, was forbidden by law, however, tolerated, and people just did not sell his vote, but argued that even with stones and knives that had paid them.
(20) Within the city preceded only twelve o'clock one of the consuls lictors with axes and fasces, alternately enjoying this parade every month. A public official called accensus marched in front of the other consul lictors followed without fasces. This custom had fallen into disuse when Caesar reestablished.
(21) Nothing is Bibulus everything is Caesar's, since no one remembers what you did that.
(22) was granted in Rome many honors and privileges to parents who had three sons, at the request of jobs were preferred to their rivals, they are exempted from certain taxes and the shows were assigned preferred positions, hence in order , called Justium liberorum privileges.
(23) Fencing Master.
(24) The decrees of the Senate after its transcription were deposited in the Treasury, in the same way the laws were preserved and other acts of the Republic. The place where public records were stored was called tabugarium. The decrees in which the Senate gave special honors to Caesar were written in letters of gold on silver columns. Many decrees of the Senate were written on brass plates that are still preserved. The decrees of the Senate before being deported to the Treasury had no authority whatsoever. This was the cause that under Tiberius ordered that the decrees of the Senate and especially not imposing capital punishment be brought to the Treasury until after ten days in order that the Emperor if he was absent had time to examine and mitigate its severity.
(25) If no right to violate, any violadlo by rule, but spare the rest.
(26) ensures that this accident did Pliny Caesar superstitious, and, after him, she did not get into a car without first reciting a verse three times mysterious, as a preservative against travel accidents.
(27) According to Pliny, the Euripus was a large ditch that encircled the Circus, in order to prevent wild animals could escape and embark on the spectators, which had already happened several times. It was given the name Euripus, if we may believe Suetonius an interpreter, because the movement of water which flowed from stroke and retired just as he remembered the name of the strait between Euboea and Boeotia , where he was feeling the ebb and flow seven times a day. Cesar so embellished the Circus, built by Tarquin the Elder, Pliny says that he was the founder.
(28) This reform was made by Caesar in 708, during his third consulate M. Aemilius Lepidus. It was called annus confusionis that year and the next primus Julianus.
(29) There were 300 senators to Sila raising their number to 900 Caesar and later to 1,000, but Augustus reduced it.
(30) was appointed eight magistrates, Cesar created ten, there were also two aldermen commoners than before, called grains, and finally raised to forty the number of the Questors.
(31) populous district of Rome. located between Esquilino and Celio.
(31a) Everything Bithynia and Caesar's lover ever owned.
(32) Cesar put the Gauls, Nicomedes Cesar. Here Caesar triumphs because proceeded Gaul, while Nicomedes who underwent Cesar does not win.
(33) Ex auctionibus Hastae. Hence the word took its origin Spanish auction (under the spear). Among the Romans whose institutions were all military, accounted for a large paper launches. To censor was the spear that pierced the censors in the public square to announce the auction of the state revenues. Until centunvirales was the sign of the jurisdiction of centunviros, and therefore the opinion of those judges were called trial of the spear, judicium Hastae. Until Fiscalis was the one nailed to announce the sale of something belonging to the Treasury, which are authorized in the eyes of individuals. Until proctoria or venditionis was, in short, that alluded to in this passage from Suetonius; clavábase a sign that was sold to the bid, under the decree of the praetor, the proscribed property of citizens or convicted.
(34) Citizens, hide your wives, we bring here the bald adulterer; in Gaul is dedicated to fornicate eon the stolen gold to the Romans.
(35) The tense served at parties of the Circus, to stroll the images of the gods, the ferculum was the place where the car rested images, which together drawn by horses. Caligula did carry on this way for senators.
(36) ... if pecudi cor defuisset. The word also means cor wit; Cesar plays, then, with its double meaning here.
(37) Chained in his success. brought the Gauls, leading after the Senate, the Gauls laid down their rags and took the lacticlavias.
(38) Gross, to toss the kings, he was named first consul to this, by throwing the consuls, he has done last king.
(39) Elections were held for centuries in the field of Mars. Bridges (pons or ponticulus) were the sites where to vote went to the site (septum uovile) depontani called the elders who did not wear their votes with other citizens. It was mandatory that the Court judge who presided over the elections in the chair seat, which was immediately to this step.
(40) Will I lose to forgive?

The Twelve Caesars

2010-03-05T10:11:00.000-08:00

In the book The Twelve Caesars
Gaius Suetonius Quiet
Written in the second century D.C.

Julius Caesar

I. Julius Caesar (1) ... was sixteen years old when his father died. The following year, appointed flamin dial (priest of Jupiter) (2), repudiated Cossutia, daughter of simple but opulent gentlemen, with whom he was betrothed since childhood, he married Cornelia, daughter of Cinna, who had been consul four times of that Julia was born, shortly after, without the dictator Sulla could by no means get divorced, for that reason stripped him of the priesthood, his wife's property and inheritance from his home, pursuing the so that had to hide, and though sick with fever quartan was forced to move for asylum almost every night and redeemed at the price of gold from the hands of those who chased him, got to be forgiven through the end of the Vestal Virgins (3), Emilio Mamercus and Aurelius Cotta, his relatives and friends. It is certain that Sulla refused a pardon for a long time to the pleas of his best friends and most important characters, and finally, overcome by the perseverance of these, uttered as driven by inspiration or secret presentiment:
"They succeeded, and they wear it. Rejoice, but know that there will come a day when that which is so dear to them, destroy the party of the nobles, that together we have protected, because in many Marios Caesar (4).

II. He made his debut in Asia with the praetor M. Termo, sent by him to Bitin in search of a note, stopped at the home of Nicomedes, running the rumor that he prostituted (5); rumor which grew by reason of having returned a few days after Bitin, claiming to send a freedman of his clients, a certain amount of money owed. The rest of the campaign favored over its popularity, and in making Mytilene received a civic crown from the hands of Thermo (6).

III. He served also in Cilicia, under Servilius Isaurcio but not for long, since the news of the death of Sulla were hopeful that M. Lepidus attracted further turmoil, rushed back to Rome. However, while offering advantages Lepidus him, refused to endorse his plans, his character does not inspire confidence, or apparently so favorable an opportunity as I thought.

IV. Calm civil insurrection, accused of extortion to Cornelius Dolabella, to whom consular man had been awarded the honors of victory; acquitted the defendant, Caesar decided to retire to Rhodes, both to prevent their foes like to relax and hear the wise teacher Apollonius Molon. During the voyage he made in winter, he was taken prisoner by pirates near the island Farmacusa. They remained in power almost forty days, always maintaining its integrity (7), with no company but his doctor and two cubicularies, because immediately sent all his colleagues and the rest of the slaves to bring him the money necessary for the rescue. It was arranged in a hundred and fifty talents, and as he landed, chased pirates in front of a fleet, capturing them in the recall and subjecting them to torture with which many times had threatened them in jest. At that time Mithridates was devastating the surrounding regions, and not wanting to appear Caesar as indifferent to the misfortunes of the allies of Rhodes, where he went, moving to Asia, he found relief in it, threw the prefect of the province of the king and loyalty robusteció faltering cities.

V. On his return to Rome, the first dignity with which he invested the people's vote was that of military tribune (8), then work with all their forces trying to restore the power tribune, deeply broken by Sulla. He also apply the proposition Plocia, for the repatriation of L. Cina, brother of his wife, and all those in civil turmoil had joined Lepidus, Sertorius using, after the death of the consul, and even gave a speech on this issue.

VI. As quaestor, delivered from the rostrum of the speeches, as was usual (9), the praise of his aunt Julia and his wife Cornelia, who had just died. In the first set of the way that follows the double origin of his aunt and her own father for her mother, my aunt Julia was descended from kings, for his father, is linked to the deathless gods, because of the kings descended Anco Marcio Marcio, whose name took my mother came from the Julian Venus, whose race is ours. So are, in our joint family, the majesty of kings, who are masters of men, and holiness of the gods, who are the owners of the Kings. To replace Cornelia, he married Pompeii, daughter of Q. Pompey and niece of L. Sila, who later divorced on suspicion of adultery with P. Clodius, who was publicly accused of having introduced into their rooms disguised as a woman during religious ceremonies, the Senate decreed information sacrilege.

VII. During his quaestorship, won the Ulterior Spain (10), where, traversing the assemblies of this province, to administer justice by delegation from the praetor, to get to Cadiz, watching near a temple of Hercules a statue of Alexander the Great (11) He sighed deeply as regretting his inaction, and not censoring anything worth having done yet at the same age when Alexander had already conquered the world, immediately resigned his post to return to Rome and wait in it the opportunity for large events. The authors gave more nourishment to their hopes, playing a dream (12) who had the previous night and disturbed his spirit (for he had dreamed that raped his mother), promising the world empire, because that mother who had been subjected to He was none other than Earth, our common mother.
VIII. Having gone ahead of schedule, visited the Latin colonies bidding for the right of Roman citizenship, and had driven to try a bold undertaking, where, fearing it so all the consuls, had not retained some time the legions to Cilicia, but not meditate on it stopped shortly after large projects that were carried out in Rome itself.

IX. In fact, shortly before taking possession of the councilor, conspired, it is said, with M. Crassus, consular man, and P. Sila and the latter Autronio-convicted for bribery, having been appointed consul, to attack them early in the year to the Senate, diesen death of senators and awarded the dictatorship Crassus, Caesar would appoint the head of the cavalry , after seizing the government in this way, it was his intention to return Autronio Sila and that the consulate had dispossessed. Tanusio Geminus in its history, M. Bibulus in his edicts and C. Curio, the father, in his speeches, talking about this conspiracy. Even the Cicero seems that the quote in a letter to Axius, where he claims he made during his consulship Caesar project conceived to be mayor.

Tanusio adds that Crassus, either by fear or remorse, did not appear the day appointed for the massacre, and that is why Caesar did not give the signal. This signal writes Curio was dropping the shoulder toga. The same curiosity and M. Nason actori attributed another conspiracy with young Cn. Pison, and claim that the suspicions raised by the management of this in Rome, was awarded for extraordinary commission, the Government of Spain, agreeing, however, raise matching movements, one outside and one in Rome itself through Ambron and the Transpadane, but that the death of Ram set aside the project.

X. As mayor, not merely decorate the Comitium, the Forum and the basilicas, but also decorated the Capitol and built frames for temporary exhibits, which showed the public some of the many objects that had gathered. Sometimes with his colleague and others separately, organized games and hunts wild beasts gather for himself getting all the popularity of joint expenses, for which reason, his colleague M. Bibulus said, comparing himself to Pollux, that as was the custom to appoint the sole name of Castor's temple erected in the Forum to the two brothers of the donations were called Bibulus Caesar and Caesar's bounty.

Caesar added to this donation gladiatorial combat, which included some couples less than you wanted, because so many had come from everywhere, which alarmed his opponents, made to limit, by a special law, the number of contestants, in the future could be in Rome.

XI. Having caught the popular favor, tried by the influence of some tribunes to be given by plebiscite, the Government of Egypt, serving time for this unexpected request for a special command that the inhabitants of Alexandria had expelled their king, friend and ally of the Roman people universally depraved attitude. The party of big claims led to failure of Caesar, who, in order to weaken the authority of those then by all means possible, rebuilt trophies C. Mario over Jugurtha, the Cimbri and Teutons monuments had been destroyed in earlier times Sila, and when the gunmen opened process, had included among the murderers, despite the objections of the law Cornelia, to all those who, during the Prohibition , received money from the public treasury as the price of heads of Roman citizens.

XII. He also found who is accused of capital crimes to C. Rabirius, who some years before more than anyone cooperating with the Senate to punish sedition raised by the tribune L. Saturnino, and designated by lot to judge, so passionately condemned to no avail as much as this partiality to the accused in his appeal to the people.

XIII. Faint hope of command, tried Pontifex Maximus (13), and so much largesse showered, which scared by the enormity of his debts, his mother said, kissing her before going to the polls, they never see him again but pontiff. For these procedures beat its two competitors, but very frightening and above him in his age and dignity, also getting them the advantage of getting more votes in their tribes than they in all others.

XIV. He was praetor (14) Caesar when he discovered the conspiracy of Catiline, it was agreed unanimously by the Senate the death of the guilty, and he only said that the trustees separately in municipal cities and they alienate the property. Moreover, those who had proposed severe punishments, so terrified by the repeated threat of popular hatred that someday unleash against them, Tenth Silano, consul-designate, dared to soften by a vote interpretation that dignity could not change, and they had understood, he explained, in a much more rigorous than had given him. Caesar was going to succeed: many senators had added to his side, and with them Cicero, the consul's brother's victory, therefore, was safe, whether the sentence of Cato would not energize the faltering Senate. But far from wavering in their opposition, Caesar persisted in it so that the group of Roman knights who guarded the hall of the Senate armed, threatened him with death; swords were directed against him, so that those who stood it turned away, and only some wedged between his arms and covering her with the toga, managed to save him, with great difficulty. Then influenced by fear, yielded, and throughout the rest of the year declined to attend the Senate (14a).

XV. The first day of his Pretura summoned before the people to Q. Catullus, in charge of rebuilding the Capitol (15), and proposed to be conferred the care to another. But noting that the patricians, instead of going to greet the new consul, marched in haste to the assembly to oppose stubborn resistance, considering the unequal struggle, the company withdrew.

XVI. With great zeal and passion kept Caecilius Metellus. author of more turbulent laws against the right of opposition from their colleagues, until a decree of the Senate suspended the two in their duties. Caesar had the audacity to continue in office and administer justice yet. But when he learned that they would employ him violence and weapons, lictors fired, stripped of the pretext and secretly retired to his home, resigned, according to the custom of the time, to remain calm. Two days later calmed the crowd, who spontaneously had gathered at his door and offered their cooperation to restore their dignity. Astonished at such restraint, the senators that the news of the riot had gathered hastily sent to thank the most illustrious of them, being called to the Senate where he was paid high praise, reinstated in his office and removing the first decree.

XVII. Sobreviniéronle new troubles soon, for having denounced as an accomplice of Catiline, before the Niger Groom quaestor, L. Vetti Judex, and before the Senate Q. Curio (16), who were granted public rewards for being the first to reveal the plans of the conspirators. Curio Catiline wanted to know what he said, and were forced to submit Vetti signature given by him to Caesar Catiline. Caesar felt that it should not bear these attacks, and begged the testimony of Cicero, to show that he had spontaneously provided some details about the plot to deprive Curio getting the rewards he had been offered, in terms of Vetti, who was had requested bail for appearance, he was stripped of its assets, personally mistreated, that nearly tore him apart in the assembly at the foot of the rostrum rostral and imprison him, getting the same regarding the quaestor Groom, by have consented to the prosecution at his court a senior judge him.

XVIII. In concluding his Pretura, designóle Further fate of Spain, but held by his creditors, was not free them until he gave bail, and without waiting for, according to the customs and laws, the Senate had arranged everything concerning provinces, left, and to escape legal proceedings which arise wanted to stop in office, and soon in raising aid to the allies who implored the protection of Rome. When he had pacified the province (17), returned without waiting successor, with equal haste, calling the triumph and the consulate together. But having now set the election day, could not present his candidacy if he did not enter the city as a private citizen, and when asked to be exempt from the law, found vigorous opposition, so he had to give up the win for not therefore be excluded from the consulate.

XIX. Of its two competitors to the consulate, L. Lucey (18) and Marco Bibulus, joined the first, which enjoyed little influence, but who possessed considerable wealth, on condition that his name would link the termination of their largesse to the centuries (19). The nobles, aware of this pact, fearing the consequences, and believing that Caesar, invested with the highest judiciary of the State and with a colleague completely yours, would not put limits to their audacity, they wanted him to do the same promises to Bibulus century , and most of them contributed money to do so; Cato himself said, during this, which by that time the corruption would be beneficial for the Republic. Caesar became consul Bibulus and large failed to do but to assign to future charges consuls inconsequential, as the inspection of forests and roads. Caesar moved by this injury, spared no means to win over Cn. Pompey, then angry against the Senators, who hesitated to approve his actions, despite their victories over King Mithridates, also reconciles with M. Crassus, who was still at odds with him from the violent quarrels of his consulate, entering into an alliance with them why nothing would be done in the state that dislike to any of the three.

XX. He ordered the pair to take possession of his dignity, was to keep a diary of all popular acts of the Senate and its publication. Restored also the ancient custom be preceded by an usher and follow lictors, during the months they had the fasces the other consul (20). Promulgated the Agrarian Law, and unable to overcome the resistance of Bibulus, threw it on the forum at gunpoint. The next day he presented his complaints to the Senate, but not found anyone who dared to report on violence or that any of those agreed to propose solutions, so often, had adopted much lower risks. Desperate Bibulus thus retired to his home, where everything was hidden during his consulate, while not being another opposition through edicts. Since that time Caesar went all state affairs for its unique and sovereign authority to the extent that some, before signing his letters, dating as a joke, not the consulate of Caesar and Bibulus but Julio and Caesar thus making two consuls of one, separating the name and Aguadilla is also known, were also disclose these lines:

Non Bibulus quidquam nuper, sed Cesare farctum est:
Nom Bibulus memini nil fieri see (21).

The territory of Stella, consecrated by our ancestors, and the fields of Campania, addressing the needs of the Republic, were distributed among twenty thousand citizens parents with three or more children (22). Asking tenants reduction of the state, one third of them forgave leases, and publicly exhortólos recklessly in not raising taxes next award. Well acted throughout, giving generously as you asked, because no one dared to confront him, because if anyone dared to point a victim of his revenge. One day apostrofóle Cato, and ordered a lictor dragging him out of the Senate and take him to prison. Having endured some moments, L. Lucullus, became apprehensive about his threats to such an extent that she apologized to his knees. Since Cicero lamented in a lawsuit the state of affairs of the Republic, at nine o'clock the same day the order commoner posing the patrician P. Clodius, Cicero's enemy, who had vainly attempted to pass a long time. Wanting to finally conclude with adversaries Vetti bribed by dint of gold, declaring that some of them had incited him to kill Pompey, and that led to the Forum, to name some of the alleged perpetrators of the plot. But Vetti accusing without evidence as to both one another, immediately suspected fraud, Caesar's triumph and despair of that crazy business, he is believed to poison the accuser.

XXI. By this time marrying Calpurnia, daughter of L. Ram, who was to succeed at the consulate, and awarded to Ch. Pompey in marriage his daughter Julia, Servilius Cepión repudiated her fiance, who just before ayudóle Bibulus mightily to get rid of. After this new alliance, began in the Senate to approve at first, the view of Pompey, when primarily used to interrogate and Crassus was customary for the consul maintain year-round in order established by the same on the Kalends of January to receive the votes.

XXII. Supported by the father and son, chose us among all the Roman provinces of Gaul, which, among other advantages, offering wide range of successes to his ambition. He was, first, Gaul with Illyria, under the law Vatinius, and after the Senate gave him the hair, convinced that the people had to be released if the senators refused. Unable to master the joy inside him after a few days in full Senate jactóse have maxed out their wishes, despite the hatred of its enemies appalled, and said that henceforth march on their heads. Having one for abusing him, then said: "That will not be easy for a woman, as alluded replied:" But in Syria, ruled Semiramis and the Amazons possessed much of Asia.

XXIII. Completed his consulate, the magistrates and Lucius Domitius Memmi called for consideration of the minutes of the previous year, bringing the matter to the Senate Caesar, who would not know it. After three days of fruitless discussions, went to his province, and immediately, to hurt, his quaestor was prosecuted for various crimes. Shortly after he quoted him the people's tribune L. Antistius, but through the intervention of the college of tribunes, managed to avoid being accused remained absent while serving the Republic. Hereinafter to be safe from those attacks, was careful to attract, through favor, the judges each year, forming a law not to assist their influence, nor allow it amounted to honor those who pledged to uphold during his absence; condition being sworn not hesitate to require some even written promise.

XXIV. So, having boasted publicly L. Domitian, who aspired to the consulate, Consul perform as she could not do as praetor, and also remove Caesar commanded the army, called Luca, a town of its province, Crassus and Pompey, encourages you to request them same also the consulate, to separate Domitian, and forcing then to extend his rule for five years, achieving both. Still in this regard, he added other legions to which he had received from the Republic, and held at your expense, was another in Transalpine Gaul, which gave the Welsh name of Alanda, and trained in the Roman discipline, arming and equipping the use of the republic and after granting the right of citizenship. Henceforth not leave any opportunity to escape the war, it was unjust and dangerous, attacking people indiscriminately allies and hostile nations or savage, until the Senate decreed send commissioners to Gaul to inform him of the state of that province, even suggested by some to deliver it to the enemy. The booming success of all those companies made them, however, taxed more flattering praise and frequent than they had managed others before him.

XXV. In the nine years of his command conducted the following companies: He reduced all Gaul between the Pyrenees and the Alps, the Cevennes, the Rhone and the Rhine, a Roman province, except the cities allies and friends, forcing the conquered territory payment of an annual tribute of forty millions of sesterces. It was the first who, after a bridge over the Rhine, the Germans attacked across the river, and got signal victories over them. He also attacked the Britons, hitherto unknown, the defeat and demanded money and hostages. Amid so many hits, only suffered three losses, one in Britain, where a storm was about to destroy their fleet, the other in Gaul, before Gergovia, where an army was defeated and the third in the territory of the Germans , where killed in an ambush Titurio and Aurunculeyo legacies.

XXVI. During these expeditions, he lost first his mother, his daughter later and later his grandson. Meanwhile, the death of P. Clodius had caused riots in Rome and the Senate, he thought no more than establish a consul, appointed nominally to Ch. Pompey. The tribunes of the people he designated as a companion to Caesar, but not wanting to return for this nomination before the war ended, to make them understand that the people grant him permission to call, away, his second consulship, when he was to complete the term of its mandate, was given this privilege, and designing since most large projects and high hopes, nothing spared to attract supporters at the expense of public and private favors. With the extra money to the enemy, began construction of a forum whose land alone cost over a hundred thousand sesterces. He promised the people, in memory of his daughter, shows and a feast, unknown and unprecedented, and finally, and to satisfy public impatience, used their slaves in the preparations for this feast, which had entrusted to contractors. Rome commissioners had seized by force, to book, the most famous gladiators, at the time that viewers were to pronounce his death sentence. And as for the young gladiators, did not educate in schools or by Lanistes (23), but in private houses and Roman knights, senators also made him adept in handling arms and asking, as shown in his letters, handle the teaching of those gladiators as teachers and governing their exercise. Caesar doubled the pay of perpetual legions. In the lavish, wheat distributed without stint or measure, and sometimes he was seen giving each man a slave taken of the spoils.

XXVII. To retain the support of Pompey with a new alliance, offered him Octavia, niece of his sister, despite being married to C. Marcelo, and asked the hand of his daughter intended to Faustus Sulla. A few surrounding Pompey and most of the senators had made his debtors, rather than making interest or being this very small; also made magnificent presents to the citizens of other classes, guests who came to him or spontaneously. Your donations are extended to the freedmen and slaves, as their influence on the mind of his master or employer. The defendants, citizens burdened with debt, the prodigal youth, found in the safe haven, unless the charges were too serious, complete ruin or disorders that could be too great to remedy. For them frankly said: they needed a civil war.

XXVIII. No less carefully deployed in attracting the favor of kings and provinces throughout the extent of land, providing some free of charge thousands of captives, sending other auxiliary troops in the time and place they wanted, without consulting the Senate or the people . Adorned with splendid monuments, not just Italy, Gaul and Spain, but also the most important cities of Greece and Asia. Everyone began to sense with alarm to many companies, when the consul M. Claudio Marcelo issued an edict by which, after announcing that it was the salvation of the republic, the Senate proposed giving to Caesar's successor before the expiry of the time of its mandate, and because the war was over and was assured peace, which licenses the victorious army; requested also that in the upcoming elections were not taken into account the absence of Caesar, Pompey since it had canceled the plebiscite given in his favor. It happened in the law about the rights of judges, in the chapter in which prohibited absent the request for honor, excepting forgot Caesar, the error was not corrected by Pompey until the law It was engraved in brass, and deposited in the treasury (24). Not content with removing Caesar Marcelo its provinces and their privileges, would also support a motion to Letinio, which deprived the colony he had founded in Novumcomum, the right of citizenship, an ambition that, contrary to the laws, had been granted by both.

XXIX. Disturbed by these attacks, and convinced, as she had often heard that when occupying the highest state post would be more difficult to make him descend to the second rank from it to the last, resisted with all his power to Marcelo, opposing and tribunes, and the other consul, Servius Sulpicius. The following year, having happened at the consulate M. Marcelo to his cousin Marco, continuing the same effort, advocates were prepared through considerable extravagance. Were these defenders, Aemilius Paullus and Gaius Curio, tribunes very violent. But finding strong resistance everywhere, and seeing that the consuls were appointed opponents also wrote to the Senate, pleading not deprive him the benefit of the people, or at least give orders to the other generals also dejasen their hosts relying as believes, meet, whenever he wanted, his veterans more easily than Pompey new soldiers. He offered, however, their opponents eight legions license, leaving the Transalpine Gaul, Cisalpine retain two legions, or only with Illyria until it was made consul.

XXX. Rejected, however, by the Senate and refusing his requests to his enemies in a pact the health of the Republic, went to Gaul Citerior and provincial elections held now, stopped in Ravenna, ready to avenge on the strength of arming the tribunes supporters, if the Senate preparing violent actions against them. This was indeed the guise of civil war, but is believed to have other motives. Cn. Pompey said, unable to finish the work begun Caesar or personal resources to meet the expectations that people had put in his back, he wanted to disrupt and move him around. Others assert that he feared forced to realize what he had done in conflict with the law, against the auspices and intercessions during his first consulship, because M. Cato stated under oath that he would cite as licensing justice to the army. It is generally said that if he returned to private status, would be forced, as Milo, to defend himself before the judges surrounded by armed soldiers, giving odds that this criterion refers Asinius Pollio and is, in the battle of Pharsalia, looking defeated their opponents and defeated, spoke these words:

They wanted it, after I had made so many companies convicted me, C. Caesar, if he had not asked for help to the army.

Others believe, finally, he dominated the habit of command, and having compared it with his own forces of their enemies, believed this opportunity to seize the sovereign power, who in his youth had been coveting. It appears that Cicero believed it too well. In the third book of Offitiis (of Duties), said that Caesar was always on his lips the verses of Euripides who translated this way:

If violandum Nam est jus, regnandi gratia
Violandum est: aliis rebus pietatem tails (25).

XXXI. When he learned that rejected the intercession of the tribunes, they had to leave Rome, he put forward some cohorts in secret to avoid arousing suspicion, in order to mask, chaired a public spectacle, is occupied in a building plan for a circus gladiator, and delivered as usual to the pleasures of the feast. But as the sun went to his car sent to yoke the mules from a bakery nearby, and with little accompaniment, took hidden paths. Consumed torches, long astray, and wandered at random, until at dawn, having found a guide, went on foot along narrow paths to the Rubicon, which was the limit of his province, where he waited his cohorts. He paused a moment, and reflecting on the consequences of your company, exclaimed to the nearest:

"We can still go back but if we cross this bridge, all weapons will have to decide.

XXXII. When stood hesitating, a wonder he decided. A man of remarkable size and beauty, suddenly appeared sitting a short distance from him, playing the flute. Besides the pastors, soldiers of the posts immediately, and among them trumpets, came to listen, then grabbing one trumpet, headed in toward the river, and pulling vibrant sounds of the instrument, he reached the other shore. Then Caesar said:

"Let us go to where we call the signs of the gods and the iniquity of the enemy. Jacta est alea. (The die is cast.)

XXXIII. When the army had crossed the river, was submitted to the tribunes of the people, who, driven from Rome, had come to his camp, he harangued the soldiers and weeping, he invoked his fidelity, rending their garments over the chest. He believed he had promised to each census of the equestrian order, which resulted in error which showed several times during the speech the ring finger of his left hand, saying he was ready to give everything to taste, until his ring, those who defend their dignity so that those who were in the back rows, in a better position to see than to hear themselves that movement had no significance, not long hence, in disseminated rumor that Caesar had promised his soldiers' rights and men's income, ie, four hundred thousand sesterces.

XXXIV. The order and summary of what he did after it: He held the first Piceno, Umbria and Etruria. He surrendered to L. Domitius, who was appointed his successor for the riots, and stood with his garrison to Corfinio, but leaving him at liberty, then coasted above the sea (Adriatic) and marched on toast, where the consuls had taken refuge Pompey, intending to spend the sooner the sea. After trying in vain to prevent the realization of this project, he went to Rome, summoned the Senate, and ran to grab the best troops of Pompey, who were in Spain under the three legacies, M. Petreius, L. African and M. Varro, having said to his men before leaving that he would fight an army without a general to return to fight a general without an army. Although delayed by the siege of Marseilles, who had closed their doors, and at the severe shortage of food, got, however, soon their purpose.

XXXV. He returned quickly to Rome, went to Macedonia, he attacked Pompey, and mantúvose shut for four months in immense grounds of fortifications, defeating the purpose, in Pharsalia: he pursued after his flight to Alexandria, where he was found murdered, having to do King Ptolemy, who tended plots, a war very difficult and dangerous for him, the disadvantages of time and place, the harsh winter, the activity of your adversary, provided with all the precincts of the capital, and low preparing for a fight that was far from expected. Having emerged victorious, he granted the kingdom of Egypt to Cleopatra and her younger brother, not wanting to do a Roman province, for fear that someday could provide the opportunity to further discord to fall into the hands of a governor turbulent. Alexandria went to Syria, and thence to the point where he called urgent messages because Farnace, son of the great Mithridates, exploiting the unrest, to war, having already won numerous victories that had filled him with pride. Caesar Bastáronle four hours of fighting, the fifth day of his arrival, to destroy that enemy, and thus is often made fun of the triumphs of Pompey, who was due largely to his military reputation such weak enemies. He won once to Juba and Scipio, who had collected in Africa the remains of his party, and defeated the sons of Pompey in Spain.

XXXVI. During these civil wars not only suffered setbacks in the persons of their legacies and of these C. Curio perished in Africa, C. Antonio fell to his enemies in Illyria, P. Dolabella lost his fleet at the same Illyria, and Cn. Domitian Calvin, his army in Pontus. To himself, always victorious, fortune left him only twice: in Dyrrhachium, he refused Pompey and not harassment said he could not beat this opponent, and another in the last battle fought in Spain, where his case was so desperate that even thought of killing himself.

XXXVII. On completion of the war, five times enjoyed the honors of victory, four in the same month, after the victory over Scipio and a few days apart, and the fifth after defeating Pompey's sons. His first and most illustrious victory was over Gaul, after that of Alexandria, of Pontus, that of Africa, and most recently, of Spain, always with pomp and different apparatus. In his triumph over Gaul, as he passed by the Velabro, was almost thrown from the car as a result of having broken the shaft (26), went up straightway out of the Capitol in the light of torches, which enclosed in lanterns, were worn by forty elephants left and right aligned. When he celebrated his victory over Pontus, among others warned triumphal ornaments a poster with the words Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered), which did not express any additional marks the events of the war, but his quickness.

XXXVIII. Besides the two sesterces double that at the beginning of the civil war, had given to each child of the legions of veterans by way of booty, he gave them twenty thousand ordinary assigning you lots, though not immediately divest non-owners. He divided the people ten o'clock bushels of wheat per head and as many pounds of oil, with three hundred sesterces which previously offered, adding another hundred in compensation for the delay. He pardoned a year rent in Rome until the amount of two thousand sesterces, and even five hundred in the rest of Italy. Added to all this meat distribution, and after the victory over Spain, two public feasts, and not quite worth considering the first of its magnificence, offered five days after a more abundant.
XXXIX. He also gave performances in various genres: gladiator fights, representations in all areas of the city, by players of all nations and all languages, gave further games in the circus struggles of athletes and a mock naval combat. In the Forum between the gladiators fought, Furio pretoria family leptin, and Q. Calpena, who had served in the Senate and defended cases before the people. The children of many princes of Asia and Bithynia danced the pyrrhic dance. The Tenth Roman knight in games Liberia as a mimic of its membership, receiving five hundred sesterces and a gold ring, after passing from the scene, the orchestra, to settle among the knights. In the circus ensanchóse the sand on both sides opened around a moat (the Euripus) (27), which filled with water, and young noble chariots raced in that room and beams, or jumped in horses trained for this purpose. Children divided into two groups according to age difference, called Trojans run the games. Dedicáronse five days of fierce fighting, and recently there was a battle between two armies, with the participation of five hundred laborers, three hundred horse and forty elephants. To allow more space troops had removed the barriers of the circus, each end forming a camp. Athletes fought for three days in a stadium built on purpose near the Campus Martius. Opened a lake in the lower Codet, and engaged in naval combat biremes there, and triremes quadriremes crowded Tyrian and Egyptian soldiers. The announcement of these events had brought to Rome abundant number of outsiders, most of whom slept in tents in the streets and squares, many people, including two senators, were crushed or suffocated by the crowd.

XL. Caesar then devoted himself to the organization of the Republic reformed the calendar (28), so messy because of the high priests and the abuse, and old, collations, the harvest festivals and summer did not match, or of the grape harvest in autumn, distributed during the year as the sun, and wrote three hundred and sixty-five days, intercalary month and deleted one day increased every year quarter. For this new order of things could make a beginning on the Kalends of January the following year, added two months between November and December, having, therefore, this year, fifteen months, counting the old intercalary was happening there.

XLI. He completed the Senate (29), appointed patrician, the number of magistrates (30), councilors, and judges Quaestorships subordinates who had rehabilitated his dignity stripped of censors or the courts convicted for bribery. He shared with the people's right to choose in elections, so that, apart from its competitors through the consulate, the other candidate's designated half the people and himself. Hers the names on tablets that were sent to all tribes, containing this brief inscription: Caesar, dictator, the tribe itself: I recommend to this or that to obtain their dignity for your vote. He admitted to honors the children of the proscribed. Judiciary restricted to two kinds of judges, senators and knights, and suppressed the tribunes of the treasury, who formed the third jurisdiction. He was the census of the people, not the usual way or in the ordinary place, but by districts and rolls as owners of the houses reduced the number of citizens who supplied wheat to the State, three hundred and twenty-one hundred and fifty thousand , and for the formation of these lists could not be in the future cause further disturbances, decreed that the praetor could replace, by lottery, with those not enrolled were those who died.

XLII. Eighty thousand citizens were distributed in the colonies overseas, and not to remain exhausted the population of Rome, decreed that any citizen under twenty years and more than forty, who does not compel public office, serve more than three years in a row outside Italy, that no senator's son undertake distant voyages, if not in a union or under the patronage of a magistrate, and, finally, that they raised cattle tuviesen among its pastors than a third of free men at puberty. Granted the right of citizens to those who practiced medicine in Rome or cultivated the liberal arts, with the intention of fixing them this way in the city and attract those outside. As to the debts, instead of granting abolition, expect and demand with constant zeal, decreed that the debtors would pay according to the estimation of their owners and according to the amount before the civil war, and capital to be deducted from all that was paid in cash or written promises by way of usury, whose provision is nullified nearly a quarter of the debts. He dissolved all unions, except those with origins in the early days of Rome. Increased penalties in regard to crimes, and as the rich often committed, because they paid with exile without being prejudicial to their flow, decreed against parricide, as Cicero relates the absolute confiscation, and against other criminals, the half of their property.

XLIII. In the administration of justice Caesar was jealous and severe. Deprived of the senatorial order people convicted of extortion, declared invalid the marriage of a former prefect who had married a woman the second day apart from her husband, although it is not suspected of adultery. Tax imposed on foreign goods, prohibited the use of berths, purple and pearls, except certain people and ages, and on certain days. Primary Care watching the sumptuary laws, commanded the guards markets prohibited items confiscated and moved to his house, and sometimes lictors and soldiers went to pick up in the dining rooms which had escaped the vigilance of the guards .
XLIV. For the police and adornment of Rome and for the enlargement and security of the Empire, was designed from day to day increasingly numerous and large projects. First of all wished to erect a temple of Mars was the largest in the world, filling up to ground level in the lake that gave the show of naval combat, and a very large theater at the foot of Mount Tarpey, wanted to reduce to just share all civil law and in rare books epitomize the best and most indispensable of the huge number of laws and diffuse existing public libraries intended to be Greek and Latin, as nourished as possible, and instruct M. Varro care to acquire and classify the books dry proposed Pontine marshes, open water exits the lake Fucino, build a road from the sea to the Tiber across the Apennines, open the Isthmus (of Corinth), to repress the Dacians, who had scattered throughout Pontus and Thrace after the war to take delivery, through the Lesser Armenia, not in battle but fighting them after they have experienced. In between these projects and work Surprised death, but before talking about it will not be useless to say something briefly of her figure, appearance, dress and customs, as well as civilian and military work.

XLV. It is claimed that Caesar was tall, white-skinned, well-shaped members, round face, dark eyes and vivid temperament robust, although in later times his attackers sudden fainting and night terrors that disturbed sleep. Also experienced seizures twice, while performing his public office. Attached great importance to the care of his body, and not content with that they cut his hair and shave often did you start the hair, so it was censored, and not bear with patience the baldness, which exposed him more than once the jeers of his enemies. For this reason, drew on his forehead the thinning hair on the back, and therefore, of those honors were granted by the people and the Senate, none were so nice as always carrying a laurel wreath. It was also fastidious about his dress, trimmed with stripes used lacticlavia which came to the hands, always putting the garment on a belt too loose. This custom to exclaim Sila frequently turning to the nobles: Do not trust this young man so bad tight.

XLVI. Lived at first a modest home on the Subura (31), but when he became Pontifex Maximus, was installed in a building of the State in the Via Sacra. They say many who had very great love of luxury and magnificence in Aricia had built a cottage, the construction and ornament had invested considerable sums, and is said to have ordered to demolish it because it did not meet what I expected, although then his fortune was short and had acquired many debts. In his expeditions had floor tiles and mosaic for their stores.
XLVII. It ensures that led him to Britain hoping to find the pearls, and who delighted in sospesa compare in size and in his hand eagerly seeking incredibly precious stones, sculptures, statues and paintings, which paid the exorbitant prices beautiful and clever slaves, and prohibiting write these expenses. Both he embarrassed himself.

XLVIII. As ruled in the provinces always maintained two tables, one for high servitude and one for the Roman magistrates and people in the country. Domestic Discipline was very strict at home, in small things as in great, and once made his baker jailed for serving the guests other than bread which helped him to a freedman who loved was punished by death for committing adultery with the wife of a Roman knight, although no one had filed suit against.

XLIX. His intimacy with Nicomedes is a stain on his reputation, that covers the eternal shame and therefore had to suffer many satirical attacks. I omit the lines of Calvo Lucinio very well known:

Bithinia quicquid
umquam habuit et poedicator Cesaris (31a)

Pass over in silence the accusations of Dolabella, and Curio, father called them Dolabella rival and iron queen bed inside the real and stable Curione bitiniana Nicomedes and prostitute. Nor do I dwell on Bibulus edicts against his colleague, in which she is queen of Bithynia and censure those who, in turn, his old love for a king and a kingdom now. M. Gross reports that by this time, one Octavius, who said kind of crazy as he came in mouth, gave Pompey in front of large crowd, the title of king and Caesar, the queen. C. Memmi accused of having served at the table of Nicomedes, with the eunuchs of the king, and presented him the cup and the wine in front of numerous guests, among whom were many Roman merchants, whose names are mentioned. Cicero Not satisfied with having written some of his letters that Caesar was taken to the royal chamber by soldiers, who slept in it covered in purple on a bed of gold, and that this descendant of Venus Bithynia prostituted the prime of life , said one day in full Senate, while Caesar was defending the cause of Nyssa, daughter of Nicomedes, and when I remembered the favors he owed to the king: Skips, I beg you, all that because too know what it is received and what you have provided. And finally, the day of his triumph over the Gauls, the soldiers, between the lines that usually conclude with the march of the winner, sang the very well known:

Gallias subegit Caesar, Nicomedes Cesarem.
Ecce Caesar nunc triumphat that subegit Gallias:
Nicomedes non triumphat that subegit Caesarem (32).

L. Held for certain that was much given to incontinence and spared no expense to get such pleasures, having corrupted considerable number of women of distinguished families, among which are cited Postumia, wife of Servius Sulpicius; to Lolli, Aulus Gabinius ; to Tertulla, M. Crassus, as well as Mucia of Cn. Pompey. But the truth is that Curio, father and son and many others complain that Pompey have taken to wife, driven by ambition, repudiating the other had given him three sons, a daughter of the man who, in his bitter memories , used to call new Aegisthus. But none so loved and the mother of Brutus, Servilia, which during its first consulate gave a pearl that had cost six million sesterces, and which at the time of civil wars, and other rich gifts, low cost award made the most beautiful homes that are then sold at auction (33). Given the strangeness manifested many of the low price it had paid, he quipped Cicero: For you to understand well the sale was derived Tercia, alluding that Servilia was said to favor the trade of his daughter Tertia to Caesar.

LI. It saved more respect in the provinces under his command to the marriage bed, to judge by the verses sung in chorus their soldiers on the day of his triumph over the Gauls:

Urbani, servade uxor, moechum calvum adducimus.
Aurum in Gallia effutuisti: at hic sumsisti inutuum (34).

LII. He also had love affairs with queens, including with Eunus, Bagudà wife, king of Mauritania, and that as regards Nason, did what her husband is rich and present, but the most loved was Cleopatra, with which often lasted until the new dawn feast, and sumptuous craft had gone into accompanied them from Egypt to Ethiopia if the army had not refused to follow him. He did come to Rome, leaving only go after it filled with gifts and have consented to carry his name the child he fathered with her. Greek writers said that this son was like Caesar in the face and stance M. Antonio said in full senate that Caesar had recognized him, and invoked the testimony of C. Mario, C. Oppio and other friends of Caesar, But C. Oppio refuted the assertion by publishing a book entitled: It is not Caesar's son who claims to be Cleopatra. Hervio Cinna, tribune of the people, said many people had written and prepared a bill, proposing that Caesar commanded in his absence, which was allowed to marry as many women wanted to bear children. So messy were in order, customs and so obvious the infamy of his adultery, Curio father who called in a speech husband of all women and women of all husbands.

LIII. Neither his enemies deny that he was sober in the use of wine. Known is the phrase of Cato: Of those who have sought to overthrow the Republic, but Caesar was sober. C. Oppio says he was so indifferent to the quality of the food, which Having served a feast day for fresh rancid oil, Caesar was the only one who refused, and even repeated it so they do not believe the host accused of neglect or rudeness.

Gaius Julius Caesar. The monarchical solution. Pompey.

2010-03-05T10:09:00.000-08:00

Pompey, despite its military successes, was not the man who at first everybody had expected, like Sulla, was not only an officer and therefore lacked most of the requirements to become ruler of the world empire and founder of a monarchy. Neither had the political skills necessary for such an enterprise. But one need ever produced, in due course, the man who also appeared accurate and well for Rome, steeped in aberrations and turbulence, El Salvador: Gaius Julius Caesar.

The aristocracy was bankrupt and to his eloquent advocate, Cicero, hinted quite clearly that the idea of a monarchy, he thought Pompey would not be unpleasant, provided he was a gentleman benign regard to the Senate and their supporters. At the time of the revolution of Catiline, Caesar was still in its early Cañeta, politics. But belonging to a noble family, of vast relationships with the aristocratic world, with his keen eye recognized that this party could not collect nor honors nor power. Here, under the protection of a government nepotístico, would not have been more than vegetate; for this, still young, went into opposition, in turn contributing to the elimination of the last remnants of the reaction silane. When Corky and Catiline began to develop his social program, remained a quiet, but everybody in Rome knew he had similar aspirations. Caesar certainly no stranger to the healthy and fruitful germ content.

Corky's law, but was also strongly convinced that under the political forms and reforming outdated all attempts were ineffective. At that time certainly must have thought, in the privacy of his mind that he too could be called upon to lead the revolution. Neither was rich as Crassus, and had behind him a splendid military career as Pompey. If I wanted to have an entourage, he would not precipitate events, but primarily compete with Pompey with magnificent military gestures, destroying the nimbus of his irreemplazabili-ing and a grand porte, if it killed a lot of debt, do the same thing about Crassus, the second rival, less prominent person. These were the concepts more alive than the monarchy was the popular imagination, and Caesar was able to impose on both sides of the Roman people recognition of its dominant nature, thus removing the miser Pompey and Crassus, less brave warrior, its predominant position.

Four years after the fall of Catiline, Caesar came to the consulate. His most important act of government was the allocation of the last great land that the state was in the fertile Campania. This was a sure sign of how the social content of the approved program of Catiline. Pompey's veterans also were fortunate enough in the deal, so the army, despite being fired, was available for the near future. Caesar must have thought Pompey need to take together the coup against the aristocratic party - Republican. Caesar's consulate aristocratic party is over for Rome. All other problems were now relegated to the background compared to this one: Who would be the person who would be victorious in the number of applicants to the Regency? The following years are those of the agony of the Republic. This was defended desperately, but never returned to be vital. Even the power and prestige of Pompey could keep the "ancien regime", nor the latter to the former, when he repented, sought refuge in the arms of the Senate against the rival that was becoming more powerful. The match ended in victory for Caesar (battle of Pharsalia, 9 August AD 48), with the implementation of the monarchy. The aristocracy tried to snatch the prize of victory by resorting to murder, but not on this road was no longer possible to breathe new life into the corpse of the republic. Not achieved more than to blow up the struggle again by the person of the ruler. The new candidates made a dreadful process together with the party of murderers, enemies of the monarchy, and then lead the fight as a personal business. Thirteen years later, the adopted son of Caesar, Octavian Augustus Caesar, was able-after having defeated his last rival, Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium (31 BC) - assume the regency and to found a dynasty, which argued for a century knew then give way to another.

Would be a grave mistake to the transfer of the republic to the monarchy as linked to political and social changes are clearly visible. Socially and politically, everything seemed to have been in the state before. The people remained sovereign nor the Senate were formally undermined its credentials. The emperor was a special employee, but thanks to his power inviolable tribune and able to enforce all their proposals by the supreme military command (imperium). Centuries must pass before the monarchy was also recognized in the form and disappear below the representation of the republic. However, the monarchy was already done and the consequences were very beneficial.

The essential feature of the new monarchy was the existence of a supreme, irresponsible and life. At the title of this power, all gradually became equal. Have the right to life and death can, as protector of the weaker, knock out even the most powerful adversary, may intervene in any administrative, judicial and military. All these powers are for a methodical and fair government much more secure guarantee that the domination of a tiny fraction camorrística policy and reciprocal obligations and dealings of officials and businessmen. The monarchy was a leveling of the population, which gradually disappeared relatively quickly both caste differences such as nationality. While the senators and the knights continued to enjoy their relevant privileges, the imperial right to grant and remove those dignities very effectively curbed the activities of the cartels.

Much more far-reaching consequences was the relaxation of national differences. Even if the provinces were not consistently colonized, penetrated, however, the masses the idea that each force in the provinces laborious find a field of useful application. What the great tribunes had planned too early and were unable to make, despite their efforts cos spasmodic, was carried out, now that the time was ripe, almost by itself. Since the second emperor, Tiberius, took the popular Assembly political affairs for transfer to the Senate, voting rights ceased to be a commercial item for which emigration became almost mandatory.

Rome and Italy stopped by to feed upon the plunder of the provinces. Now everyone had to work, if I wanted to live and own something, and government expenditures should be borne by the italic as with the provincial taxes. This obligation to work was the panacea that brought the reorganization of Italy. And if Rome remained, indeed, a city rabble, beggars and lazy, a focal point of idle stocks, shares this fate with each metropolis. Moreover, the new central power, with its lavish court, visible to all people, encouraged new and higher needs, whose satisfaction required a continuous and well-paid work. The provinces, in short, rid of their tormentors, the famous spirits proconsuls or became propraetor-culture countries lush, full of activity and intellectual vitality.

The old and limited bourgeoisie "Urbe" was replaced by the imperial bourgeoisie, or rather global. The powerful will in Rome maintained the unity of the whole, but within this large ensemble members and the parties have enough freedom in their local constitutions, so as to prevent damage of a routine government from above. And even when the culture of the Roman imperial era was not gorgeous and seductive flowers that were opened in some places by the competition at the expense of middle and outside factors, the sum of culture in this era, so often maligned, is much higher than that of the time of Pericles, the Italian Renaissance, and so on. And who will not recognize anything that occurred that time will at least admit that there the idea of human brotherhood first found expression in the civil law was embracing everybody, and the Roman religion, Christianity, equally universal.

Rome: The insurrection of the rural proletariat

2010-03-05T10:06:00.000-08:00

The political constellation in the circumstances provided an extremely characteristic. The candidates for the regency came mostly from the ranks of the nobility and had started his political career under the protection of the party in the Senate. Its aims, which were mixed in an indissoluble whole personal ambition and sincere political convictions, could not, on the other hand, performed rather than the side of democracy, which used to welcome these "deserters" with open arms. It was much easier to group the urban proletariat around a very illustrious name of the most generous around a tribune out of the anonymous crowd.

Moreover, democracy was not, as the aristocracy, a party based on a unitary, over a communion of interests. What held them together was something negative, hostility toward the Senate (upper bureaucracy and large landowners). Only then can explain the alliance between the cavalry (capitalists) and the proletarian crowd, which drew alliance main and essential advantages in their struggle first competition with the aristocracy who was intimately closer. This bourgeois democracy, which certainly was more democratic bourgeoisie, the proletariat, if one day he must come to the decisive struggle had nothing to expect.

However, true democracy, the social, not dead. The proletarian movement had fermented enough time in the town but in the capital, where because of the squabbles and personal differences within the parties, the vote as an article of trade was priced rather high, which in the plains italics. Here were wandering thousands and thousands of peasants forced off their lands by Sulla, as bandits without bread and home are reinforced by veterans of the Sila, who had supplanted before the first and now had to succumb to the large estate that was spreading each again. While Pompey was still in the fight against Mithridates in Asia, the social crisis again erupted violently in Italy, belonging also this time the drivers of the movement of the high aristocracy.

I purposely attempts reformers and revolutionaries of Sulpicius and Lepidus we have seen how hateful cartoons historiography can do part of his political opponents. But none is so disfigured in exhibitions and performances of those times as the principal chief of the proletarian movement erupted in AD 63. His name still causes generally a feeling of almost criminal folly: it is Catiline, represented in the blackest colors both in ancient as in modern. Scion of one of the oldest noble families of Rome, had joined in the civil war Sulla as a young officer and certainly it will also pay a tribute to the blind fury of that time supporter. Many times he had to conduct punitive executions and can therefore accept that there may be exceeded in severity and cruelty the limits of what is indispensable, but the most serious of the accusations brought against them, killing his own brother, is tested too weakly to be repeated. The fact is that, when accused by such executions together with other officers, he alone was acquitted.

What we are concerned about from the subsequent private life Catiline would be really scary if true. But it is noted that the accusations against him are growing in severity over time and accuracy. Things to contemporaries, despite his fierce hostility to Catiline, do not mention or refer only never entirely vague assumptions, appear in later stories as incontrovertible facts. It was never taken to court for these crimes, he would have murdered his first wife and her stepson, while the other is trying, of course without ever succeeding, to discredit him before the judges continued allegations. But later historians, the perversity of Catiline becomes a mandatory topic of declamation and each claims the right to paint so honrrosamente as nobody did before. But the fame of Catherine should not have been before his revolutionary attempt so bad, even in the eyes of his bitterest enemy, Marcus Tullius Cicero. Catiline and Cicero presented its candidature for the consulate of the year 63. As there were other candidates, sought an agreement with Cicero Catiline to appear together in one list, but Catiline declined the offer because he was more sympathetic another candidate. Moreover, Cicero until shortly before had assumed the defense of Catiline, when his enemies had accused him of having fleeced the province of Africa, whose government took after the performance of the Pretura in Rome. The most reliable witness reports that Cicero actually said the cause of Catiline, with an address obtaining his acquittal.

Unfortunately, this speech is not preserved, for it would have a portrait of the man whom we know from existing sources, just as a monster "to Ravachol.

If we know the cause of this distortion of Catiline's personality in all of our sources, we must take as a starting point run for the consulate. The scion of an ancient patrician family in the way of a splendid career, succumbs in the election right in front of Cicero, a "parvenu" ambitious, scion of a gentleman very prominent. This strange fact is explained in the internal political problems that were pending in that election. He was preparing something big. The conviction that the situation of urban and rural proletariat urgently required a remedy, had led to the preparation of a project, which promoted the solution of the most radical and wider.

The bill was introduced by the tribune P. Servilius Rulo, a fanatical and utopian, but that was certainly very serious and honest intentions. Rulo proposed the election of a college of ten citizens, who must be in function for a minimum period of five years and undergo a radical revision of title and possession in Italy. Not only should distribute all state land among those who had nothing, this Commission should also have the unlimited provision of all financial resources of the state to create, through acquisitions within and outside Italy, a lot of land. Obviously it consisted of a return to graquianas ideas, but in a much broader, since the transfer of all financial administration to that Commission, by the use of all public resources for the needs of the proletariat, it is became de facto, not only in the abstract, in the sovereign people of Rome.

Senators and knights were equally threatened by this law. Although they were guarded against the forced sale and forfeiture, the crowd had come by the law humble servant to such a degree of power in the state that it would not have been possible to control bait were as thin as cash subsidies to customers, distributions of grain or public games. But first of all aridity threatened her great sources. Gauging, tenths, war booty, contributions should, henceforth, be invested by that Commission for the benefit of the proletariat. Until the generals and governors of provinces, until now almost completely independent, should in future be subject to accurate financial control of the Commission. And it was clear that after five years, the role of this Committee had been extended so that, by force of routine, would have formed a permanent government collateral, against which the Senate stripped of financial management, I had not had a shadow of existence.

The demands of Rulo were based on a conception absolutely fair and sound. If you wanted to distribute material successes of the Roman imperialist policy as evenly as possible among all, there was no other way than prescribed by Rulo. Also in this plan, as in the colonization laws of Gracchus and Saturninus, was including the great political thought - the state of decentralization, then the least accessible and logically would have to emerge immediately from the emancipation of the Italians. However, decentralization was precisely the most appropriate point for the beginning and the intensification of the agitation on the part of opponents. Nobility and chivalry, again in league against the common danger in a block as solid as ever they were before, they knew very well that to determine "a priori" the fate of the project Rullianus was enough to present it in that way to the urban populace, the that ultimately did in the voting tilt the scales in either direction. Any consideration for non-Roman population was regarded with suspicion.

Catiline, as follows from its election manifesto, which was transmitted to us, indeed distorted, by Cicero and Sallust, fully shared the proletarian standpoint, ie from Rulo. Both developed privileged classes against the election of Catilina the most violent agitation. Its common candidate was just the "parvenu" Cicero, who was elected as representative of the "sign of order," as he called it, against the candidate of the revolutionary proletariat and rural. The second consul, Gaius Antonius, was a fellow of Rulo and Catiline, but incompetent, indecisive and not even sure, being rather inclined to move to the opponent, if they had personal interests required. Actually, Anthony did nothing for the draft Rulo Cicero once he had done in the eyes glow a promise of abundant provision for the following year. Both Cicero worked more strongly. In his inaugural speech to the Senate and the People's Assembly draft Rulo fought in the most resolute, which is explained by the serious danger that threatened the interests of cartel enforcement.

Humiliating for the great mass of the urban population is, however, that Cicero's appeal went to the basest instincts of the same.
"Do not go," said Cicero's admonition to the colonies of Rulo! You do not sacrifice to, of course, by the hard field work, the advantages that only here can you enjoy, your influence on the distinguished citizens, free life , your voting rights, your consideration, in view of the city and the forum, games, parties and all that is beautiful in Rome. " He should think that these words are a treacherous distortion or invention of a political adversary, but these are in the speech and published by Cicero against Rulo, and we here a true testament to the high politics of the "poster order ".

Cicero can not blame him either from his fundamental point of view, or from that of his tactics, much less be accused of inconsistency. By the way, had been emerging as a Democrat to assume the consulate is set to head the party in the Senate. But Cicero had been a Democrat only because he had joined the cavalry for a time the proletariat for the struggle against the domination of the Senate. The more unnatural alliance was the more natural was the coalition of the Senate and the cavalry, the "cartel of order" against the new social-revolutionary ideas. Cicero, the greatest parliamentarian of Rome, who with his magnificent speeches, full of temperament, spirit and humor, got drunk himself and others, was not, however, a great statesman. Like almost all his contemporaries, nor understood the new party, which, in turn, was barely conscious of their homogeneity. She was not well in the new grouping, the Democratic morbid considering it as an abnormality and criminal, as a few decades ago was used to treat the social and especially their leaders emerged from bourgeois circles. Moreover, Cicero was lucky with his speeches. The Rulo bill fell even before the vote and the italics proletariat was again at the grave of a hope.

But Catiline not give up, and the following year he appeared again as candidate for the consulate on the basis of proletarian program. Mass reached Rome from all parts of Italy the proletariat for the election of consuls, but this time in vain, to be elected two ardent enemies of reform. The agitation was intense electoral and vote-buying was not only accomplished, but until approved. But just this wild turmoil of the enemies of reform served as a lesson to the followers of Catiline, who are also the propertied classes, and even senators and knights, led now a large contingent of "socially awake." Now it was clear that nothing could be achieved by constitutional means and that a change could be obtained only by the path of violence. For an armed uprising was no lack of strength. Bands roamed everywhere proletarians, threatening the lives and property of residents.

Catiline wanted to avoid, as long as possible, that way. Were the opponents who longed to the outbreak of the revolution, to be rid of this fraction of its opponents and before the return of Pompey from Asia. Cicero went so far as provocation and finally had success. Catiline, after he had organized in Rome the revolutionary party, left the capital and began, in Etruria (Tuscany), the head of the strongest in those bands. Tried to become a well-ordered army and agree with the rebels in the other regions for a general attack against Rome. Meanwhile in the capital was proclaimed a state of siege and armed several armies, who were quick to march to the threatened regions. At the same time be proceeded against the adherents of Catiline in Rome imprisonment and illegal executions altogether. War broke out before Catiline could make the necessary preparations. Once again the "cartel of order" managed to succeed. On the hills of Fiesole. near Florence, the army of the insurgents was destroyed (62 d C.) Catiline fell again and the proletarian movement was without drivers.

Catiline is true, had become revolutionary, driven by circumstances and by the provocations of their opponents, but violent revolution had already become an indispensable instrument in policy development. If you wanted to lead an army against Rome, did nothing but what they did before him, Sylla and Marius and what would shortly after Julius Caesar. For this you can not, of course, see a criminal Catiline. What he undertook was serving a good cause, which worried him more than his own political career. But his adversaries forged legends stupidest and most shocking to debunk, once and for all, the proletarian movement to burn in the proletarian party as the party of anarchy, to bring up their own fight against social reform as a fight against subversion. The currency you want to accept all that pure Cicero, his brother Quintus Cicero and Sallust, representing the "bourgeois" democracy, have collected and invented for that purpose, would logically have to be judged also according to Gaius Gracchus or demonstrations of Cicero Napoleon Volfango according to Menzel. However, if the political art of Catiline had been to murder and arson, his supporters were not met for years and years, on the anniversary of his death around his grave to honor the memory of the fallen godly glory, which both had expected. And very hard in the elections for the year 63 had voted at the same time many citizens by Catiline, the friend of reform, and by Cicero, the representative of the "sign of order."

The so-called "Conspiracy of Catiline", whose sole purpose was the election of party chief for consul, has occupied us long, because this constitutes the only real explosion of proletarian fermentation in the post-silane. That success is missing, is to be attributed only partly to the imperfection of the organization, in reality, the movement was not the right man who could take the reins of government with a firm hand with practicality and broad prospects, as opposed to the ruling powers. Neither Rulo and Catiline had those conditions. Moreover, denying the situation to the point of considering social reform to reconcile with a world empire Republican. Neither enjoyed the reputation among the crowd, to distinguish themselves with displays of monarchical aspirations. To a crowd in general and in particular Roman proletariat prevailed over after all only a man of war. If they had had in their ranks to Pompey, the success would have been possible. They had what was missing for Pompey owner erected in Rome: positive and sweeping political ideas, while one that had what they lacked: the means of power, familiarity with its use and fame of irresistible because of his military successes. Even when the aristocracy feared Pompey close union and the party of reform, the latter did not want any connection with it precisely because of its monarchical inclinations, seeking instead to convert the "College of the ten" in a power which should contain not only the aristocratic clique, but monarchical aspirations.

Rome: The last aristocratic constitution and its dissolution

2010-03-05T10:04:00.000-08:00

The Constitution of Sulla was quite conservative. For him, the Senate was the only truly safe and capable corporation, whose prestige and power was, therefore, that raise, limiting all other powers. But he dared not remove the legal status - state of popular sovereignty. Spontaneously acknowledged - apart from some criminal provisions "to all italics as Roman citizens, especially since the extension of citizenship to all of Italy contributed essentially to divest of their importance to the People's Assembly, a body of popular sovereignty. More people than ever were now equivalent concepts and urban populace, being therefore crucial to establish who would have the power to govern according to his will to that factor. So the fist of Sulla was particularly felt, and in the most serious, on the tribunes, guilty in the eyes of the dictator have put so far in the power of eminent people in the service of the opposition.

Sila reattached the right of initiative of the tribunes the consent of the Senate (pp. 67 and 107). Restricted to the ancient right of veto (intercessio ") that had been growing the whole activity of the tribunes, and established penalties for abuse. Even more deeply wounded by this office provision that should be banned henceforth tribunes submit candidacy for higher positions of the state. Initiated ambitious young independent political career often occupying the tribune. Yes he now brought with it the renunciation of the very profitable provincial governors, applicants nobles had to stay far from it, so that lost judiciary, the lack of big personalities, much of its prestige and also compared between the crowd.

Sila also limited positions ordinarily occupied by the aristocracy, and that to prevent the excesses of eminent personalities. The choice of opponents to such charges could not be thwarted by any precautions. In the office they could become dangerous, but, upon completion of their duties, they were able to do much in the Senate with his single dissenting vote. The higher charges were linked to Italy, which was now a peaceful and unified territory, therefore, did not need a standing army. Only after the annual function, the consuls and the magistrates would like proconsuls and propraetor to the provinces, where government and assumed command of the army. The danger of revolution was thus reduced significantly. Being away from the capital and, therefore, no close contact with the urban party bosses, the military command could not be exploited so easily, the less so because the territory of the city should not ordinarily be trampled by the forces armed. A Sila censors took away the option of completing the Senate and set at 600 the number of its members by incorporating elements addicted to it, and to provide the steady increase in the Senate rose to 20 the number of such inferior Officers, Quaestors , providing for its membership in the tall body. To further increase the prestige of the Senate, Sulla took from rival layer, chivalry, the privileges granted him by Caius Gracchus, firstly the role of jurors, which was returned to the Senate.

In addition, Sila regulated credit with setting a maximum interest rate and the judicial process with the increase in criminal chambers, so that one has the impression that he did not intend to achieve results only momentary. Personal power was little significance in their plans. When he felt his work accomplished and assured for the future, deposed, just sixty years, his dictatorial powers. But precisely here is his miscalculation. If she wanted to be a "tyrant" or ruler of Rome, its action would have left a more lasting effect. But what Gaius Gracchus, Saturninus, Druse clearly seen, ie that only a personal power (monarchy), which should disappear before all other differences, not an aristocratic republic, could perform the world-historical mission of Rome, not never presented to the mind of Sulla, who have had the strength to carry that plan.

Sila had designed and completed his work as a whole. Accustomed to the blind obedience of his legions, also believed that a statesman would be satisfied to develop a regulation and establish the bodies for implementation. It was therefore concerned to establish an economic base, which could have supported and maintained their political regulation. Regardless of your credit law, of no value to the proletariat, Sila had not made more than a simple substitution. In place of the veteran Mario and small farmers and other regions Samnium stood its veterans. An estimated 120. 000 of them received land italics, while the dispossessed proletarians became completely devoid of livelihoods and lack of work. This change meant a marked worsening parts of the country's culture. Smallholders were driven from their fields, with the exception of the veterans of Marius, diligent and experienced farmers to work, while the new occupants were wild warriors, who in a short time they had to break to the delight of the large landowners who are hungry for lands. The expelled were concentrated in major cities, mainly in Rome, where they could get some advantage with the exercise of political rights, unless you prefer to seek a living by theft and brigandage. The uncertainty of the regional roads grew frightening proportions. Besides, what other solution to such stocks they had stripped of their property and have no job? Given the competition of slaves, could not think seriously about making a living by wage labor and also had deleted Sila distributions of grain, which previously provided much of the livelihood of the proletariat.

For the duration Silana Constitution, the first major political task of senatorial power, strengthened again, would have been the placement of this new proletariat. In the provinces it had possibilities and increased labor force to those trained have produced large profits. Maybe Sila has figured so the course of his work, whether in general reflected on the further development of its constitution. But such a solution of social problems could not be included in the plans of the aristocratic regime, recently strengthened again, but nothing improved. A Romanization of the provinces, an expansion of the bourgeoisie in the territories which were subject to the spoliation of the ruling circles, had cut the vital thread that society as very productive. This was in abeyance the social problem that had caused the whole revolution, so no wonder it soon will take his revenge by size neglect.

Sila same year had finished his work well, at least I assumed, had to attend to the outbreak of civil war. The farmers organized themselves into bands expelled and tried to grab land with violence to new occupants. Sulla died during these seizures, but before he closed his eyes, one of its most ardent former supporters, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, consul in 78, had demanded the abolition of all legislation Silana, including proscriptions, confiscations, Veterans placements, etc.. Lepidus, but politically insignificant, it was perverse that kind of tradition that gives us interested and partial. If so, could hardly have left, and this Sulla still living-the party of the nobility, under whose protection he had done a splendid political career, to enter a competition offering dubious chances of success. Lepidus was the economic misery that the proscriptions, confiscations, etc.., Sulla had determined, and was of the opinion that he could not think of peace while Italy were filled with broken stocks and thirsty for revenge. The party of the Senate was, of course, outraged by the change in front of Lepidus and try innocuous, with accusations that as governor, plundered Sicily, but had to drop the charges. His election to consul occurred despite the strong opposition of his former political friends. As consul, he had to suppress the insurrection of the rural proletariat, exploded in Etruria (Tuscany), but sympathetic in the depths of his heart with the insurgents. Resolved, therefore, agree with his army, which was appended to lots insurgents try to achieve their aims with violence. With such considerable force marched on Rome, but was defeated under the walls of the city and soon after died of pulmonary tuberculosis in Sardinia. Lepidus got only one thing: the distributions of grain removed by Sulla, were restored, which, at least, was the recognition that the expropriation had a right to compensation.

Yet as more violent than was the resistance of the party of the nobility to the radical proposals of Lepidus, the conviction of the unsustainability of the constitution silane seized increasing circles. The aristocracy, without the counterbalance of tribune, censorship and juries (men), emerged as the most pernicious of government systems. Especially in the cases against the provincial governors, true leeches, went to advertising the scariest pictures and administration of Roman justice. In the same field began to wish aristocratic opposition, as evidenced by the fact that a consul of the year 75, Gaius Aurelius Cota, trying to restore the constitution pre - silane; but the wrath of the nobility was so frightened that he himself proposed the repeal of the laws already passed, leaving, however, effective provision whereby the tribunes could again aspire to senior positions.

The decisive step took him five years later, two famous men: Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompey. Both had been officers of Sulla, honored him with the highest honors, but two had the best opportunity to know the value of the ruling regime, having recently saved the state in an extremely dangerous situation. Pompey had finally destroy the last remnants Marian, who, under the command of Sertorius bravest officer Mario Party, were about to establish an independent state in Spain, in this war, Pompey was much regretted the inability government of Rome. Crassus, on the other hand, after heavy fighting had mastered a tremendous uprising of slaves against those two years were futile efforts of consular armies. A Pompey and Crassus, least of all, could not escape the knowledge that the future belonged to the great democratic ideas of Gracchus, Saturninus, Sulpicio and that only sole power could provide a solution to the chaos by running through the republic. They could go very well, given the prevailing conditions, to the belief of being at that time the only figures worthy of being considered. Pompey was considered, after the death of Sulla, as the first military authority and, in general, as the most outstanding figure in Rome. Crassus was also appreciated as a general, but his influence was based primarily on their nearly immeasurable wealth, acquired mostly through the exploitation of seizures if-wool. For both the enemy who had to overcome was the myopic clique of the Senate, which, despite their rivalry, undertook this struggle together.

Pompey and Crassus were elected consuls for the year 70: both contrary to existing laws, because the first had not yet reached the minimum age provided, and the latter had occupied the Pretura just a year earlier. But the need for "reforms promised by them was so strong that no one objected to his choice. In fact, radically eliminated the scheme, whose implementation contributed themselves. The censors were restored power over the Senate and in the same year were dismissed 64 senators, ie more than 10%. Jurors were taken to the senators, if not entirely, by two thirds, having to share with the Knights and the tribunes erariales latter trusted men of the tribes and appointed by popular election. Finally, the Tribune was reinstated in all their former power and irresponsibility.

Pompey and Crassus had been confined exclusively to the political, economic problem untouched - social. They were too cautious to commit and to risk all his political future attempts to solve the most difficult of all problems: they knew attempts doomed to failure until they had created a strong central power, without which nothing could have been advanced of right in the social field. Resistance not only prevented the owners really effective measures were taken, also the urban proletariat wanted little more than a steady increase in the distributions of grains. Yes those deals were enough to his table and also great games to satisfy your entertainment pleasure, the social problem and almost nonexistent for the society.

The laws of the two rivals were very appropriate to create a solid ground on which to build a strong central power. Only within the jurisdiction of the powers-Senate Cavalry Tribune-personality could become worthless, but not with the misrule indiscrecional one of the three. From this point of view, Pompey and Crassus contributed greatly to the solution of political tension: his personality, made familiar to the people the idea of sole power (monarchy). Pompey was especially so headed boldest hopes and the crowd was always ready to contribute its part to increase its power and prestige. Despite fierce resistance from the Senate, is continually put money available to Pompey and soldiers in such numbers as had never been done before by any citizen or Roman general. Even if those means were intended specifically to fight external enemies, pirates and Mithridates, who had again reared its head after the death of Sulla, was a priori obvious that once acquitted his task would not have left the power, for a seat in the Senate and other senators and give the low-interested political struggle of his vote for either. It was rather expected, given the relationship then existing between the army and its leader, Pompey, leaning on his troops actually took the regency. Had they not, perhaps, both he and Crassus licensed only with great reluctance on their militaries, as stipulated under the constitution? New laurels now offered him Pompey, after which it could no longer pretend it a passive docility.

Rome: The victory of the Italians. Inability of the Roman democracy. Restoring the rule of the Senate.

2010-03-05T10:02:00.000-08:00

The Confederates were finally tired of so many tricks and failures. His last hope had been disappointed and the murder of Drusus was the signal for a general insurrection. Before long the war went on throughout italics. The alternatives of that war, long and violent (91 - 88), not of interest here, of whom we only highlight the awareness of their rights had acquired the Italians. Rome was saved only by a spirit of condescension and the price of peace, after the first year and a half of war, was granted Roman citizenship to all italics Confederates who wish to obtain within a specified period. There was no, of course, this result without a little haggling, who recalls the tactics of the patriots during fights with the plebeians. Indeed, it would distribute the new citizens among a small number of districts (tribes), thus preventing its prevalence in the voting. Although much of the Italians accepted the peace despite this limitation or imperfection, it had to leave enough flammable material. With the granting of civil rights was just the first step towards solving the problem italics.

The shape of the City - State by which the exercise of political rights was subordinate to the personal presence in Rome, have always ensured a leading position in the State to the metropolis and its older citizens. Samnites were particularly farmers and Lucan, who were not quite ready to comply with these rights merely external, which only tied them more closely to world politics, which cost so many burdens and sacrifices. They tended, therefore, to separate from a state in which the peasantry could always be a servant, but never owned. Only after long and severe struggles they also recognized the State italic unified (88). But his resistance shows that granting civil rights issue had come into a new stage, but that in no way been solved. The part that remained and was more difficult for Italy to create a government, a constitution, an administration that satisfy the just claims of all its citizens.

But also among the contrasts Roman citizens had, meanwhile, deeply exacerbation. From war italics, conducted with extreme exasperation, the economic situation had gone insane at frightening proportions, and this time, which is understandable, given the existing distribution of land had been greatly damaged their property and cattle to the fore the large landowners. The big capitalists, ie the gentlemen who had invested significant portions of their land assets in italics, had suffered too much damage, but could offset losses with gains in other fields. This economic crisis began again facing each other for the nobility and chivalry. The capitalists wanted, of course, take advantage of the situation, demanding with ruthless severity of insolvent farmers pay the principal and interest. In their rush farmers were unable to do more than resort to the exhumation of the old and absurd prohibition of charging interest, which, notwithstanding the change in economic relations, had not yet been removed. In contrast, under the Law of the Twelve Tables, the creditors could be accused before the jury at a rate four times the interest charged. The urban praetor, Asellio, who should intervene in these processes, after vain efforts at conciliation was revealed that the letter would have applied to the Law of the Twelve Tables, so the capital came to be in a situation of great distress. Again he thought usual recourse to the means and the murder. While celebrating a sacrifice in the marketplace, Asellio was stabbed to death, despite the size placed on his head, the murderer was never found. In any case, the murderers got their end: no one dared to put into effect over the long-standing prohibition on charging interest. The proletariat was not directly interested in the issue of claims, could eventually do better business with the gentlemen and the nobility also were disgusted with the government because it had not been able to refuse applications for the Italians.

It was not so easy to get out of that chaos. Only fans of the likes of Livius Drusus could imagine how to find a way out before the old order of things had been pretty insane. An optimist honorable, but an impractical statesman was the tribune Publius Sulpicius Rufus, the most powerful orator of his time.

As a Druse, who had been a friend, also believed he could fully realize their projects based on the ethical content of them. Also toying with the idea of conciliation and removing the most obvious reasons recrimination, trying to channel the quiet evolution paths. To fight corruption in bureaucracy, proposed to dismiss from office any senator who owed a debt of more than 2,000 dinars (about 1. 500 marks): a very good idea, certainly, but only a child could believe achievable under the conditions then. He called after an amnesty for friends Druse, convicted and deported for being friends of the Italians, not realizing that with this strongly irritated the knights, who had succeeded with those processes away from Rome to their most hated political opponents. And finally, urged a more serious application of civil and political equality, both from the Italians as the freedmen distributed among the four urban tribes: that is, asked its distribution in all constituencies, thus raising the disgust from the crowd. Instead, she found support for his plans for former Confederates and the freed slaves. Although it was small, the scope of projects, they were approved only through the use of violence, adding new grounds for the previous fight, whose removal had been in the intentions of Sulpicio.

It seems that Sulpicio did not include in his original plan the idea of monarchy, on the contrary, the regeneration of the Senate bill gives him more "well the impression that Sulpicius was still thinking of the old regime to restore Senate. The news that had gathered around him 3. 000 mercenaries and children of families constituted a counter gentlemen - Senate devoted to him, lies in the memories of their mortal enemy, Sulla, who in that year (88) occupied the consulate and had been found often in very difficult situations and humiliating to the impetuous proceed Sulpice. But in the course of Sulpicio realized that without a strong arm to convert good intentions into action would have been spent in vain wisdom and courage. There needed the iron fist of a man of war, a famous name, and an army accustomed to victory. Not because Sulpicio despairing of finding a peaceful solution, but it was necessary for recalcitrant and opponents know that the new order also would be sufficiently supported by actual force factors. In the field of military glory, no one could compete with the old Marius. The winner of Jugurtha in Africa and the sticks and Teutons in Gaul, had won new laurels in the war italics, and even as a politician had behaved very badly with his party, reaching to betray him, as head of an army was the ally more precious. For these reasons Sulpicio chose Mario as a protector of his work.

The external situation contributed greatly to aggravate the chaotic internal situation. While in Italy burned in Confederate war in the East the brilliant and energetic Mithridates, king of Pontus threatened Rome's possessions, having already seized the Roman province of Asia (former Kingdom of Pergamum). Following an order given by him, all the Italians living in that province were killed. Mithridates the population welcomed as a liberator: the Roman administration was reaping what they sowed their greedy officials, businessmen and tenants. Mithridates I also began to confiscate provincial Roman possessions in Greece. Meanwhile the Roman armies were still in Italy, not having yet achieved the submission of Sannio and Puglia. The consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla had to leave early for the East with the necessary troops, but was again postponed his departure.

The supreme command in Asia was also paramount to the domestic situation, for the nobility and chivalry. The general, once the war ended happily, have had to reform the constitution and reorganize the administration of the country, completely ruined. The Knights (capitalist) had every reason to distrust Sila, known as ultra-conservative and that had no regard for their interests. Important, therefore, against Mithridates sent a general who not only annihilated the powerful enemy, but also serve the interests of meekly gentlemen. Also the looks of them were set at Mario, especially as it was no longer feared her proletarian politics. Had not given in his sixth consulate Mario evidence of total disability policy? Sulpicio, meanwhile, could go along with the wishes of the gentlemen, even revulsion they inspire him. Mario's prestige could be enhanced not only by the likely success in East war, and alliance with him, though absent, so it acquired greater value. Sulpicio thus proposed in the Assembly to surrender to popular Mario instead of Sila, the direction of the war against Mithridates, and the Assembly approved the proposal.

But now it became clear that change had occurred in the situation. Mario itself, more than any other, had contributed to the transformation of the citizen army into a mercenary army, for which the commander in chief replaced the country. The legions, whom Sulla led to victory in the war italics, refused obedience to the law, and tribunes who told them the appointment of Mario, they were torn. Sila did nothing but go along with the inclinations of his soldiers to march with them from the Campania on the capital. Rome was contestability by Romans and then Sulla restored the full extent the power of the Senate. Was restricted to powers of the tribune and the old was replaced with the reformed constitution of the centuries. In the social field, nothing was done except setting a maximum rate of interest, which helped predominantly noble landowners who needed credits. Sulpicio laws were repealed; Sulpice, Mario and other popular party leaders were exiled. And if Mario had saved his life after a long and bumpy flight, Sulpicius, however, fell victim to his political naivete (88 ad C).

Sila believed to have imposed the order of a radical and definitive way only because opponents were silent because of the usual "military methods". He felt so strong and secure in their position, which quietly welcomed the election of a political opponent consul, Lucius Cornelius Cinna, who swore merely require new laws. But hardly Sila left for Asia, the gentlemen who had been stripped by him of all his political influence were felt freed from a heavy weight and immediately opened hostilities. The proletariat, which had been treated only as an enemy by Sylla, joined the Knights. Mario, who was a refugee in Africa, was recalled to Rome and again fighting occurred in and outside the walls of Rome. The revolution triumphed. Mario and Gina entered the capital at the head of his victorious army. Mario reoccupied for the seventh time, the consulate (86 ad C).

But this so-called democracy have argued, under the direction of Gina, for the space of four years his power in Rome, democratic ideas - regardless of the restoration of Sulpicio laws and the abolition of the Sila-not indicate the most minimal progress. All that Cina and his adherents were "Mario was spiritually broken and died 179 days of his seventh consulship, were mere records. Small deliveries of grain, some distribution of land, a reduction of all debts, rents, etc.., 75% believed such measures to put the economy moving again deeply deranged. They could, indeed, miss the revenge against the party in the Senate. Sila had set a bad example exiling his enemies and confiscate their property, although such measures would limit the principal chiefs. Mario and Gina answered with real fury. Nearly every prominent party members of the Senate, except those who managed to flee, were killed and their property used to provide land to the veterans of Marius and to cover cereal distributions among the proletarians. The knights, whom such a subversion of property relations was certainly not sympathetic, were bound to further support the revolutionary party, to prevent it also turned against them. How they have been in this bloodbath, it follows from the fact that the bravest among the officers of Marius, Sertorius led his troops against the murderous gangs, making killing in a single day to 4.000 "Marian".

These arrangements, which I had no idea what it wanted, nor how it wants something, he was unfit to lead the fight against a system, however unpopular it was. Indeed, Sulla had little ground in Italy, as demonstrated by the victory won by Marian with little difficulty. But this alleged democratic regime collapsed quickly, as quickly had emerged, no sooner had Sulla returned to Italy from Asia with his victorious army (83 C ad). If it were not for the Samnites and other Italic strains who were still in arms since the wars of the Confederates and wanted no part of the unit Italic Roman enemies of Sulla had not long been able to stop their entry into the capital . But as these people, with their vigorous peasant troops, though defectively designed, cut off the road, a new war raged for nearly two years (83-82) the poor country, obtaining finally enter the capital Sila, evacuated by its enemies after a final, bloody battle under the walls of the same
.
That the scheme of this democracy, purely destructive, has not taken long to be regarded as a fortune to human culture in general and democracy in particular. Sila was also fierce to his enemies. As Mario and Gina said lands and assets to the faithful, killing, banishing and robbing the vanquished. The knights had to pay dearly for their unnatural alliance with the proletariat. His enormous wealth, movable and immovable object were the main opponent of greed, and reading the stories of so many monstrosities, one wonders if all the tactics of that time consisted only of murder and robbery. There are, however, take into account that Sila was retaliation for the killing of their classmates and party and according to the ethical concepts of retaliation, then could not be otherwise. Satisfied that duty of vengeance, Sila not ended his mission with this, but he ran with his constitution a sincere and earnest attempt, albeit inadequate, leaving a vital vein.

Rome: Reaction and Revolution to the outbreak of war Italics

2010-03-05T10:00:00.000-08:00

The power of the Senate seemed restored. But just after the bloody suppression of reform attempts was clear to everyone that the Roman nobility was no longer in condition of its governance capability. If she could have freely obey the inclinations of his heart, would have eliminated the hated certainly all innovations. But this did not succeed but a very limited extent. Thus the agrarian law which on one hand put a brake no picnic for the inalienability clause, to the greed of large landowners and the other also harmed the personal freedom of the new owners, was not abrogated, but was removed entirely ineffective. First it was permitted the sale of lots created by that law. Moreover, the inalienability was an anachronism at the time. It was not possible to save an ideal survived, as the state farmer italic, and so came back soon impersonation and the impoverishment of smallholders. A second law became private property all state land held by individuals, with the exception of large areas of Campania, which continued to lease land. Only a tax, whose proceeds would be distributed among the Roman proletariat in the form of subsidies on goods, should remember the previous status, but few years later, exactly a decade after tribune Gaius Gracchus, that contribution was also suppressed.

However, the Senate had to keep grain distributions. Gaius Gracchus had at least demanding of the people. The distributions of grain soon became the hands of rulers in a secure environment to attract and appeasement. Occasionally the party of the Senate to take the initiative to increase the quota to be distributed, while this generosity could find, as suspected, the opposition from Democrats, a tribune, who later had to talk a lot himself, Marius began his career with dignity to oppose such moves of the nobility.

Also the class of gentlemen said their new privileges, especially with regard to juries. In general, the reaction was essentially conditioned by the momentary lack of heads in the ranks of his opponents. The main result was that the people back to the Senate left a free hand in the affairs of government, thus renewing the old favorite of class and caste. But this situation should not last long.

While foreign policy hitherto been considered by the popular party area reserved to the senatorial class, the new head of the proletariat, Marius managed to break precisely in this area, the authority and reputation of the old nobility. In North Africa, in Numidia, a pretender to the throne, Jugurtha, had driven the country's legitimate rulers, who were under the protection of Rome, while northern Italy since the existence of the state threatened an invasion of Germanic tribes -the Cimbrians and Teutons, prelude to the transmigration of peoples. In the war against Jugurtha (111-105 BC AD). consuls general and emerged from the old nobility had exceeded, by venality and incapacity, all believable bounds. Jugurtha could rightly exclaim, during a sojourn in Rome: "Oh venal city, what would you sell if you suddenly find who you buy!". And when two generations after the historian Sallust, Caesar's friend and assistant, wanted to show the colors more vivid the depravity of the aristocratic regime, wrote a history of war yugurtina. Also in the wars against the Germans (113 to 101 d C.) there was dirty business, for example the removal of spoils of war by the commander in chief, but was, above all, the ineptitude of the generals that put Rome in the greatest of dangers. And in both wars returned to Rome, crowned with the laurels of victory, the new man of confidence of the people, Gaius Marius, the same one whose political career was initially greeted the return of the Gracchi. A son of the village, the scion of a poor family of customers on the bandwagon, hitherto considered the exclusive possession of the high noble families! Even though the Numidian war victory could have been quite lucky and work of his courageous predecessor, Metellus, in those against it had been really Cimbrians El Salvador to Rome, and rightly greeted popular gratitude " third founder of Rome.

But in military camps had changed Mario fatal. There was nothing left of skillful politician and thoughtful, as revealed, however, in the office of tribune. The strong scent of laurel warriors had clouded his clear intelligence, to the point that from now on you can not find it trace of political ideas. Forgot your origin and their democratic duties, wasting their energies in a vain and vacuous cult of personality. With joy the people had led him to the heights of power, showing, with rare constancy, in perilous times, their full confidence with continuous re-election. Actually, it was a case of seeing the unprecedented rise in the year 100, completed and wars against the Germans, for the sixth time, to the consulate. This election was nothing more than an exhortation of the people to break the power of the enemy within, the party of the Senate, as he had already made with the external enemy. The spiritual leaders of the popular party, the Tribune Apuleius Saturninus and the praetor Servilius Glaucia, hoping to realize their great program to reflect the splendor that radiated from the figure of Mario. While Mario was missing almost everything that could make him a Graco and the very clear understanding of the entire state machinery, the insights into the factors of social crisis and the selfless dedication to the political function, provided, however , means more powerful than their predecessors. Under Mario was made completely transforming the citizen army into a mercenary army, he had introduced, by special commissioners to the conscription, enlistment system well structured and with such an army Mario believed to have also unconditionally to their policy plans inside. His immediate ambition was to ensure that force and, leaning on her, making the dream of his vanity, the sole power, this idea already floated in the air as a solution to the political complications. The leaders of the commons, Saturninus and Glaucia, endowed with great political skills, they could not in any way have a position like that of Mario and were therefore in a particularly willing to pave the way for the former. They knew that Mario would have been, as a representative figure of inestimable value, but in politics - social would have had to push him like a puppet.

Saturnino was understood that the full extent of the Gracchus ideas and thought-feasible that after the victories of Mario. Already in his first tribune proposed that the lands conquered in war yugurtina be distributed to the conquerors, the Marian army veterans, and just in lots of 25 hectares.

In love with his idea, did not respect or another tribune's veto on the contrary, he instigated against the people, who in a street riot killed him with stones. In general, Saturninus was a revolutionary in the true and full sense of the word. Also his second election to the Tribune won only by killing the opponent candidate. In his second tribune Saturninus introduced a draft settlement much more radical. He proposed the establishment of settlements in Greece, Macedonia, Sicily, and above all, in Gaul, where the Germanic tribes had just been evacuated following the victories of Marius and where, moreover, already existed for 18 years a Roman colony , Narbonne (modern Narbonne). The necessary equipment (utensils, food, seeds) must be purchased with the goods confiscated from aristocrats convicted for embezzlement and graft. As the execution of this gigantic project was to be entrusted to Mario, especially since most of the settlers were to be his old soldiers-Roman citizens and confederates, one could have for a long time to become master of Rome, or rather that, through him the match! FDR, whose most essential purpose was to decentralize power.

The main error committed by Saturnino was tactical. Their intentions are expressed in their colonization law so blatantly that even the circles that accompany Gaius Gracchus began to falter. Insurance was really only the Marian army veterans, who preferably should enjoy the immediate benefits of the new law and which could not offend the least possible dominant position of General so revered by them. But the knights and urban proletarians were poorly compliant with the plan of Saturnino. The alignment of the provinces would have severely damaged the splendid and lucrative business of gentlemen. Moreover, the proletariat of the capital paid much attention to the speakers of the nobility, when they painted her idle life in Rome, with its deliveries of grains and their games in circuses (panem et circus ") as the ideal worthy of a Roman Emperor and, conversely, rural life in the distant provinces as miserable and dark. In his plan, had also agreed Saturnino Confederate Italics, and this was enough to excite in the extreme nervousness of the crowd, which knew how to exploit their opponents as the best means of agitation. Saturninus, as soon as Graco, trying to capture the favor of the masses with a new law demagogic, reducing the price of grain to be distributed among the needy in 1115 near the market price. Moreover, on this point the aristocrats were always willing to try and compromise.

When the Assembly would pass a popular vote on the colonization laws and grains and from several parties presented the veto, Saturnino ignored all protests. There were quarrels and stormy scenes. Saturnino announced the acceptance of law and to complete the victory won in the Senate to swear the new law "pro capite, nominally. A single senator, the predecessor of Marius in the war numidica, Metellus, had the courage to refuse the oath and chose exile, although some clauses that act to smother most of its effectiveness. The terms "very significant for the situation, came from the same Mario.

Mario was not consistent and a man had become a selfish ambition. Balancing between the two parties hoped to reach the goal more likely. His conduct ambiguous in the matter of the oath was very significantly disturbed the relations between him and his allies Saturninus and Glaucia. However, there was agreement on the nominations for the following year, with, as, indeed, was as usual, ignore the Constitution. The praetor Glaucia presented, contrary to the provisions of the law, his candidature for the consulate, while Saturninus should reoccupy the tribune. To which files have to resort to raise your credit Saturninus to the people as evidenced by the appearance of "false Graco, who introduced himself as the son of Gaius Gracchus. But having the family of the Gracchi indignantly rejected the impostor, the crowd greeted with indescribable enthusiasm wanted and chose the name Saturnino tribunes and the false Graco. But the opposition candidate of Glaucia, a moderate Democrat, Cayo Memi, was most likely to succeed and could not be removed otherwise, Glaucia had him killed in the Forum the same day of the election. This certainly was not the path that would lead to the triumph of the revolution. The Senate declared a state of siege and called the citizens to arms. Mario himself, as consul, he had to take action against their own allies, unless a declaration of solidarity with their acts of violence. On December 10 (100 d C), the day the newly elected tribunes should be operationalized, violent fighting broke out on the streets of Rome. For the revolution fought mostly veterans, but lacked an efficient direction, so the bourgeois parties triumphed in coalition. The urban populace was not inclined to side with the revolution, because this time leaders also believed they could achieve their ends without the necessary concessions to the Confederates.

Saturninus, Glaucia, the "false Graco" and many had died, while Mario, for having abandoned his old friends, he was exposed to the general contempt and fell into political impotence. Saturnino-laws from the constitutional point of view certainly avoidable, were repealed on the grounds that were the product of violence.

Senate and cavalry were convinced that they had finally won again against the revolution. Mario was considered dead, the other leaders what they really were and the enemies of reform had the reassuring feeling that the problem of the Confederates, inextricably linked to the transformation of the state would not have ever lost his unpopularity with the urban proletariat Rome, which was the deciding factor in street fights. The old gang back possession of the directors and, with the exception of the judiciary given the knights in the conditions and limitations we have described, very little was changed from the days before the Gracchi. Some insightful another member from among the nobles, who had learned something in the days of terror of the revolution, trying to obtain a more moderate exercise of political power but for most revolutionary events had passed without a trace, and were mainly knights (capitalists) who argued that morbid situation with his insatiable greed for profit. The Criminal Chamber, established to protect the provincials, had become, through the work of the Knights, an instrument of ruthless system of exploitation.

A significant attempt to establish social peace was made some ten years later also a member of the highest aristocracy of Rome, Marcus Livius Drusus, whose father had risen against Gaius Gracchus as tribune. Like all his time, he also warned that only the sole power could provide a solution to problems. With mingled feelings of pride and idealism, was regarded as the noblest of the citizens and as such destined to occupy a predominant position.

To the bewilderment of political circles is characteristic then being given great importance to this political art aficionado. Just elected tribune under the protection of the nobility, introduced at once to the popular assembly a varied amount of laws that would bring something to every citizen. The result was, naturally, in the end almost all citizens, with the exception of some doctrinaire liberal - conservative well intentioned, were against him. Drusus thought to reconcile the nobility and chivalry, the jury returning to the Senate, which stripped him Gaius Gracchus, but adding 300 new members from among the knights. But neither the former class of senators-the big landowners were willing to accept such strong competition, nor the gentleman wanted to be immobilized in their businesses by income in the Senate. The proletariat Drusus gave a law of settlement and other grains. All state lands that remained in Italy and Sicily were to be divided.

The constraint on land set-test Livius Drusus had not understood the central thought of Gaius Gracchus and Saturninus. Also at this point his main aspiration was to address momentary feelings and desires. The town was, of course, more inclined toward Italian colonies - Sicel that served overseas. As regards the distribution of grains, Drusus proposed to become free, which over time would have required huge sums of money and even financial ruin, while the measure was, however, very pleasant and appealing to the ear the crowd. With the support of it, actually managed to pass Drusus their projects, but not that on this occasion to violate the Constitution.

But Livius Drusus had to admit that his work would have been worthless and impossible if both had not gotten a solution to the problem Italic, which was becoming more urgent. The more he thought crystallized in the regency of his staff, the more he was forced to put his finger on the pulse. The colonization law significantly aggravated the situation, fearing, rightly, the Confederates that the cost of implementation should have been borne by them. Drusus, feeling very secure in his position before the crowd, he dared to propose the most radical: the incorporation of all the Italians in the Roman citizenship. The motion was not free from selfishness. Drusus Confederate required the following oath: "To friends and enemies to those whom it considers Livius Drusus as his friends and enemies, respectively, give life, parents and children, if this was advantageous to Drusus and his confederates, if rights civilians were achieved under the draft Druse, regarded as the homeland and Drusus Rome as the greatest benefactor. " This Drusus made very plain that he wanted to make sure the Italians in a supporting force for personal power.

The italics were in complete agreement with those of Drusus, which awaited his salvation, and when during the year he fell ill function, rose everywhere prayers and public votes for their health. But before the bill became law, Drusus was murdered (91 BC d, C). The Roman plebs did not cry the death of the Tribune, despite demagogic laws and the government did not even need to look at the reputed murderer. Murder and manslaughter and appeared as usual and permissible means in political struggles.

The nobility and the capital until revealed unequivocally that had waited the appropriate time to end all the work of Drusus. The laws of the slain were canceled because of the events that occurred in the unconstitutional act of approval and, to appease the crowd, the courts proceeded against Druze friends, accusing them of having instigated the Confederates against the metropolis, which produced always the desired effect, as the urban populace believed to friends of those as his bitterest enemies.

Rome: The question Italics. The first attempt monarchical solution.

2010-03-05T09:57:00.000-08:00

The blood shed in the elections to the tribune in the year 133 marks a milestone in the internal development of Rome. Even in the most hectic moments of the struggle between patricians and plebeians the regular course of things had been only rarely, and always in minimal proportions, disturbed by the brutal violence. But, given the large change in the situation was no longer possible to adhere rigidly to the old ways of the constitution and customary law. The old ways of economic and political life, adjusted to the conditions of a small state to put unbearable constraints of new ideas. If you wanted real and effective remedy existing evils, who came to understand the inner contradictions gnawed civil society, could not stop at those forms rigid and outdated. Tiberius Gracchus was the victim of some illegal actions, but the grand plan in which he with many others, was the universal panacea. But with his various transgressions that referred less to written law that the traditional use, equally respected, Tiberius gave opponents the desired pretext to justify their bloody acts to themselves and in the eyes of the crowd. And these two events-revolutionary rupture of constitutional forms, on the one hand, and bloody repression, on the other, constitute the characteristic of the last century of the republic. The desperate struggle between revolution and reaction ends only when the new economic ideas and policies have achieved a decisive victory. Even when they, especially the first, still far from being realized, the establishment of the monarchy channeled economic developments and roads safer stronger, frustrating for all the vagaries of the reactionary aristocracy and creating the environment for the global bourgeoisie, which speaks to us from the many large and wealthy cities of the eastern provinces and barbaric and that finally found its appreciation outside the concession of Roman civil law for all inhabitants of the empire.

It must be admitted that Tiberius Gracchus had thought, even in dreams, in such developments. Later if other democratic measures, attempted and in part by other leaders of the people, were termed his program, this is nothing more than a deduction "a posteriori". What mainly drove Tiberius Gracchus was the restoration of a healthy people, and earnestly hoped that a renewal of ancient agricultural class could form the basis for the young world power. Much more closer to that goal plans of his brother, Gaius, his superior in talent and energy, who ten years later he served as tribune, trying, with deep and extensive measures not only remove the present evils, but to avoid return forever.

However, what action was taken, however, in Rome the reform movement? While the aristocracy openly showed their anger and vengeance against the supporters of the murdered, his work was left intact. In the joy of victory mingled also fear of the newly chosen path, to the extraordinary spectacle of street fighting. The winners are careful not to provoke the proletariat with new reactionary measures. A second time the crowd would not, of course, lowered their arms in front of senior judges and the gray heads "Yunkers" insurgents. In the many cases brought after the death of Tiberius, the winners are careful not to prosecute the leaders of the movement, preferring modest revenge against citizens and foreign minor figures whose death stirred little minds. He even allowed his brother and his father, along with a replacement of Tiberius, continue exercising the cornice-Riyadh for the implementation of the agrarian law. The nobility wanted to prove he had resorted to violence only because of the aspirations "monarchical" the tribune, but she was holding faithfully to the law and the express will of the people. The business was carried on and the new farmers came into possession of land allocations. If the lists citizens of that era show an increase of nearly 80,000 heads, whereas before it had noticed a decline, this gives an idea of the effects of the agrarian law.

The moderate reformist party, whose head was the "wise" Lelio, believed that on this new base would have lived in peace for some time, ie until the inevitable decline of the old system, slightly reformed again decompose the more advantageous of the present. In his fatwa myopia thought they had found salvation in the inalienability of the property and had no birth increased following the improvement of the material, with the impotence of the new owners homeless off the economic crisis, the adversities , bad harvests, etc.. and the effects of free choice of domicile. In this game it seemed that the most urgent and important it was to terminate the subsequent activities of the Commission of three, which, moreover, was fully justified. Within the Roman territory itself the task was completed, and the Commission had already begun the distribution in the regions of the Confederates, as they were called the Italians, of lands seized in the past and largely leased to them. But this event was played with one of the most pressing problems: the Confederate relations with Rome. This is because the Commission's initial action on the issue Italics transformed from then on one of the most essential elements of the social problem in Italy. The position of the Confederate Italic against Rome was, according to the conventions, since the war against Hannibal (219, -201) favorable as far as which in antiquity was generally determined Allied relations with the preponderant power. The Confederation rested primarily on the military community. The Italians were exempt from taxes and hamstrings, so it did not feel uncomfortable if in times of common danger had to recognize the Roman command to join the army. This obligation became much heavier from the time that it was no longer defend himself against a nearby enemy and common, but serious sacrifices to conquer new sources of exploitation for gracious lords and superiors in Rome and to pursue the urban proletariat metropolis of cheap bread and great shows in the circus. In this regard it is noted that, although the Roman military contingent was already at that time composed largely by the proletariat, such a preponderance of indigent element not noticed even among the Confederates. However, they should provide the full quota agreed, without taking into account the possible lack of children and economic damage resulting in the absence of the sole breadwinner of the family. Moreover, participating in modest proportions in the division of the benefits of war, receiving only a tiny share of the spoils, in this being postponed until the Roman soldiers. All this did not compensate nor about the disadvantages of the Roman imperialist policies. Full of envy the Confederates watched Rome drew the benefits of this policy, by which the conquest of civil rights became his main aspiration. Not all Confederates saw the solution in the granting of Roman citizenship. Until he had broken the principle of the City - State, possession of civil and political rights was of little importance to those living far from Rome. Part of the Confederates refused, then any world politics and was completely rid of a union too expensive.

Moreover, the population of Rome was unwilling to meet that desire. The granting of civil rights to all the Italians appeared to the Romans as a devaluation of the "actions" of the state in more than 50%. Only the most discerning Roman statesmen and clairvoyants should be understood that break the system of plunder, which the old ideal of the State unilaterally consumer had survived and the city - the state was too weak to provide a basis for global empire, and therefore supported Confederate aspirations. They had learned from the examples of the Phoenicians, Athenians and other towns where the expansionist policy had lacked solid foundations. The Confederates now represented by their numerical superiority and their military contingents lower than those of Rome, a danger to the metropolis, especially as the increasing proletarianization of the latter was eventually undermine the physical strength of the people. Rome was losing his healthy and vigorous rural recruits, while the Apennines mountain peoples, especially the Samnites, they could have it out in a lush serious pregnancy.

The problem arose primarily in the sense of whether the confiscation of public lands must stop at the possessions of the Confederates. If a negative decision was essential to give them Roman citizenship and make them share in the benefits of imperialist policy. Roma have won with this procedure because, although the Länder the agricultural class was in sharp decline, the situation was not as bad as in the Roman territory. Considerable number of Roman citizens could find their livelihoods in the territories of the Confederacy. But if they had been confiscated without compensation and for Roman proletarian public lands that were held by the Confederates, provoking a general uprising of the victims. But Rome was not prepared for war italics, as demonstrated by the fact! that even with the aid of the Confederates could barely master the slave revolt erupted in the provinces.

In this plight antireform both moderate reformers like that should not be held or access to the claims of the Confederates, nor irritate them with seizures. In this regard acted especially Scipio Africanus, recently returned from Spain with new laurels of glory. Scipio did make some resolutions, which, although not eliminated the Commission of three, made her helpless body, since it exempted them the ultimate decision on the location of former state land. During the live excitement created by the serious case, Scipio died suddenly, and often expresses the assumption that here is a political assassination, a cowardly act of revenge on the part of graquianos. But then no one thought of a murder and the brother of the dead, nor his friend Laelius, or the Senate, that could hardly have missed such an excellent opportunity to attack Democrats. To the murderers of the conqueror of Africa and Spain the Roman people had certainly had no sympathy. Only the growing exasperation of parties eventually led to the invention of that legend. If you really Scipio died a violent death, as can be assumed some details of his burial, not the murderers were to be sought, indeed, in the democratic camp. And his family had not had any reason to remove the traces of crimes. It was more of a private revenge, which might cast a shadow over the murder also. Also the fact that it completely disregarded public funeral, speaks rather against Scipio than against political opponents.

Scipio died or was killed just as he had announced a speech about the problem of the Confederates. To these were not interested at all be excluded from the law of Tiberius. Many of them claimed right now, and with momentum, Roman citizenship, but with its acquisition should be subject to the above mentioned law. The price did not seem very high and, moreover, regulation of the possession could not hurt either. The agitation was so great that the Senate ordered the expulsion of the Confederates who had settled in Rome, thus depriving them of contact with the Roman tribunes, who favored his claims. The Senate had successfully encouraged a tribune to submit to the popular assembly the proposed expulsion and the people, despite the contrary opinion of his brave officers, adopted at its narrow policy, expulsion, while opposing the motion a burning graquiano, Fulvio Flaco, by which the Confederacy sought to facilitate the acquisition of civil rights.

The rejection of the proposition Flaco was the signal for war. One of the Confederate Communes closest and most powerful, Fregella, immediately declared free of federal obligations, obviously waiting to join him other equally disadvantaged communes. But the uprising was premature. The Italians still lacked organization at all, so it lacked the support expected. Fregella alone could not resist the Roman power, the less so because some traitors within their own walls facilitated the surrender of the city to the besiegers. The terrible Roman court, the Senate, ordered the destruction of Fregella. But the Confederate cause had received its baptism of blood as before the social problem with the murder of Tiberius Gracchus and his adherents, so that there was an assurance that the matter eventually would find a radical solution italics.

Gaius Gracchus, tribune murdered brother, was the one who understood both problems, social and italic, as inextricable and all its implications. He saw clearly that the means hitherto employed were only palliatives to hide the symptoms of evil and radical remedy was, of course, on a new basis of social life in a new state constitution. But there was not time yet to realize all that he regarded as necessary. It was necessary to act with great prudence to gradually accept the people's new political concepts. Until they have discovered and developed parliamentarism, the economic liberation of the masses could not be achieved only by their spontaneous and strong subordination to a powerful will and giving energy to wear down in a sterile politics to devote to the practical interests of the life and social and productive work. Popular sovereignty, with its main organ, the People's Assembly, and was now the biggest injustice to the abe lived far from the center and therefore a political absurdity.; What had happened to her the day they should have access to the aspiration Confederate to be regarded as Roman citizens? Protection against the domination of the people of Rome against the Senate: that was what was required and could not obtain more than one-man rule.

However, the monarchy, one-man rule, tyranny, were the banner under which Gaius Gracchus could have done then your program. Augusto hundred years later still have to beware of giving people the impression that the Republic had ceased to exist. Gaius Gracchus was therefore the preliminary work with great circumspection, taking care of a party to establish the basis for a sole power, and on the other, the powers that be stripped of its power and prestige, and all this less noisy on the road of legislation by the silent creation of precedents that repeat often enough to make them integral parts of customary law, so powerful in Rome.

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The basis for its activity was the tribune of the people. Cayo held this office for two successive years (123 and 122), however was rejected a proposal shortly before laying wanted to declare admissible the continued exercise of the office of tribune. To him it was enough that no law specifically prohibited. His enemies did not dare to oppose the reelection, consoling himself with the petty argument that there were no opposing nominations for Graco. This presented its candidacy for a third time, giving it clear how he imagined the legal basis for the necessary one-man rule. And if they got elected for third time, he taught, however, the road followed a century after Augustus with better success.

If we examine the activity of Gaius Gracchus, especially the legislative, the detail, without considering that most of their laws should be only transitional laws of combat, the latter should appear at many points demagogic, inconsistent and wrong, as his brother, also aimed to strengthen the agricultural class economically italics, but his plan was not confined to Italy, where the available land should be depleted over time. Expect much Colony Junonia especially established for him in Africa on site of ancient Carthage. A flourishing Carthage as part of the Roman Empire was decentralized, in fact, constitute a very attractive prospect for a statesman of long view. Through a well-ordered settlement in the provinces, could achieve the same romanization and organic development in the metropolis, losing them their character as objects of exploitation.

On the other hand, was not afraid Graco weaken the success of its laws to make concessions to the currents of the day. While its colonial policy sought to dam the growth of the proletariat, gave him the opportunity to continue vegetating in the capital established by law regulate the distribution of cereals, wheat and precisely at mid-market price, which until then had provided only a measure of an extraordinary nature in times of famine. Their standardization meant to share in the urban proletariat Rome drew entries from the provinces, so it was only injustice that this participation was limited to Rome, while the people outside were excluded from this advantage. Graco's intention was to strengthen the independence of citizens, disable corrupting offers aspiring to public office and so delete the market unworthy of the vote. But the state grant could not be as relevant as to leave no remaining attracting private offerings. Besides, that attracted new proletarian masses far from the countryside to the city, while the agrarian laws were aimed at reducing the urban proletariat. Gaius Gracchus but still could not renounce the support of the proletariat. He had to have a strength factor, constitutionally recognized, to assert extra-personal power. But in the bottom of these inconsistencies are always great and real phones, not petty and selfish desires of dominance or revenge. For the depth and breadth of its program is perceived to Graco never expected to see its full realization in the course of his life. Yes its purpose had been personal, then he could have obtained more easily by way of open rebellion. The Roman proletariat hungry Confederate Italic very unhappy, piles of slaves often in open rebellion: these were factors which might force easily destroy the power of the Senate. But such a result would not have been of long duration, it would only be linked to the personality of the driver, while that Graco absolutely wanted to avoid the anarchy that would have come with her disappearance. So let a time more distant, more mature reap what he sowed.

Even his attempt to break the close connection between the power of the high court and capital, between the class of senators and the knights, could produce lasting effects over time. Certainly the financial capital could still acquire great importance in the development of industry and commerce, but hardly Gaius Gracchus sympathies harbored many capitalists then. However, did his best to turn his political allies. He proposed to confer the privileges and the insignia of the senatorial class, achieving at a very low price, causing deep temper between the two groups hitherto allies. Proceeded even more radical by transferring the gentlemen jurors until then reserved for senators. The essential task of this office was to fail in the accusations against the provincial governors or propraetor eager-proconsuls, and just then some of these governors had been acquitted by his classmates despite his obvious guilt. In the provinces the interests of the governors from the ranks of the Senate, often clashed badly with the tenants' tax contributions (publicani) belonging to the class of knights, so presumably was now very onwards those jurors would always rule in favor of tenants and against the officials. Graco also came here to deny his political principles - economic. The province of Asia, ie the inheritance of Pergamum, which had previously been treated with great care, was delivered to the ruthless plundering of the "publicani" who kept their noble duty so to provoke radical, a generation afternoon, a Roman general slaughter of the natives. Indeed, Graco got an immediate end to be proposed. The capitalists (men) acquired the awareness that until now had lacked against the privileges of senators, while they were with their class and deep bitterness as other people could now be imposed for its bearing to the masses.

Grace also has limited power and certain laws of bureaucracy, for example in regard to military conscription and the enforcement of penalties, is less important for the scope of these as significant for the spirit that informed all his legislation. Of greater significance is the fact that Gracchus sought to undermine the power of the Senate, based more on tradition than law. Rightly thought that at that time to trust the people in the Senate and which were based on the powers delegated or conferred to it, was the most excellent support for the senatorial class. To destroy that trust, often undeserved, Graco did not appeal to the reform of the constitution, but preferred to settle for the creation of history, whose effectiveness was shown in the future. From a constitutional standpoint, Graco was perfectly legal field when submitting bills to people without asking the opinion of the Senate before, and yes this was contrary to generally accepted usage, he, on the other hand, made more use ample of that right. He wore it to the Assembly by the people, the tribes, the most varied subjects of government, especially financial ones, until then reserved to the sole decision of the Senate, so he could promote with particular zeal, through the popular assembly, public works, thus ensuring work and sustenance to a large number of people. With these measures Senators snatched the opportunity to exploit these businesses for their own benefit, while, on the other hand, asserted his belief that the people could well do without the political tutelage of the Senate.

Along this road could have been achieved, certainly not fast, but surely, the great goal: the power balance between external and internal social and political situation. Everything seemed to work optimally. In the two years of tribune Gaius Gracchus had been recognized as head of the college of tribunes, however, had proved very weak opposition of the aristocratic party, fearful for his life. Things were going so well that Graco overestimated the strength of their position and thought he could get people's support for a proposal to this unfriendly. Here we showed very clearly that the Roman plebs or was in condition to appreciate the powerful personality of the great statesman, nor in the least understand the vastness of its policy. Until Graco propositions appeared to produce immediate and material advantage, the people received them with enthusiasm, but if he thought he saw in one of them harm, although transient and small, the close link between the head and the mass was broken suddenly. Gaius Gracchus wanted, even though the law Italic Fulvio Flaco few years earlier had found a "no" strict "to try again a solution of this burning issue, because clearly saw how great and next was the danger that threatened Rome especially in a time of serious internal strife. And he, therefore, the first step with a temporary and conciliatory proposition. Only Latinos, that is, the Confederates more closely together with Rome, and then favored in many aspects, should be granted full Roman citizenship, while others are remembered Italic privileges hitherto enjoyed by Latinos. But this proposal also failed to narrow policy of the crowd and Graco cost much of their popularity.

The party had warned the Senate, by this fact, which Gaius Gracchus had its dominant position not his strong personality, nor their ultimate goal, but to small material advantages that their projects contributed to the mass. It was, therefore, a very clever idea to supplant the Graco in the esteem of the people submitting to this demagogic measures. A docile instrument in the Senate found the tribune Marcus Livius Drusus, a very ambitious aristocrat, who ran for tribune in the exercise of the basis for his political career. Gaius Gracchus was then in Africa, engaged in the organization of the Colony Junonia on site of ancient Carthage. Drusus introduced the resolution to found, rather than extra-italic colonies proposed by Graco, italics twelve colonies, which would not have been possible without significantly harming the Confederates. This mattered little to the crowd, which preferred to receive livelihood in the country of origin regions migrate to foreign duty. Livius Drusus himself was well aware of the insurmountable difficulties that would have opposed the implementation of your project, and therefore, very wisely, said that would not, under any condition, be part of the executive committee, thus arousing a good impression, the more since the Gracchi had already caused resentment for having to take family members of the executive committees. In addition, heavily scared the crowd with the horrible story of storms and wild animals, which would hit the borders of the new colony Junonia and destroy the work undertaken. They could not fail in this task augurs intimidation, announcing the hostile disposition of the gods on the new colony.

When Gaius Gracchus came back from Africa, found its place in the heart of the village occupied by his colleague Livius Drusus, and when presented for the third time he applied for the tribune, not elected. The Senate, considering that the great enemy had lost its former influence among the masses, reputed time to begin the work of reaction, especially since one of the consuls elect, Lucio Opimius, the conqueror of Fregella was a bitter enemy and graquiana energetic policy. Fighting broke out upon presentation of the proposal to remove the colony Junonia. The scenes that had developed on the occasion of the murder of Tiberius, were renewed in even greater proportions. Many hundreds of graquianos were killed, among whom the most illustrious representatives of the political reformer Gaius Gracchus and Fulvio Flaco (121).

The reaction Saturnalia celebrated his blood. Ful everywhere in search of graquianos. In spades they were processed and about 3,000 were strangled in prison. In part it was to remove all standard procedure, when a tribune called the consul to realize overtly illegal conduct, the people, intimidated, until acquitted. The bodies were thrown into the river, and confiscated their estates Graco widow left him to his dowry. It was prohibited from carrying survivors signs of mourning. But the fiercest scorn was the fact that the consul Lucius Opimius could celebrate the carnage as a victory and raise to his memory in the Forum a magnificent temple to the ... "Concordia". A few years later was convicted Opimius winner because as commander in chief in the war against Jugurtha, the Numidian prince had been untainted by it, thereby having to champion the noble end his life in exile.

Rome: Attempts at land reform in the last century of the republic

2010-03-05T09:54:00.000-08:00

How to get out of that sea of evils? When, after the successful war against Carthage and the Hellenistic East, foreign policy and not continually disturbed the spirits, figures began to consider seriously the serious internal problem. The panacea they thought it lay in the restoration of ancient agricultural class held italics. He was still alive in the memory of all the irresistible force and strong popular that there had been until recently, so it was expected that the old trinity of "farmer, citizen and soldier would still be strong enough to stop the gradual economic decline . But here were not taken into account several points of importance.

The dreamers and idealists who harbored such plans and were honestly convinced of their achievement, belonging to the aristocracy. But they were a few white crows. If all the aristocracy would have thought the same way and would not shrink from the sacrifices necessary, the length and vitality of the aristocratic republic that was then essentially the character of the Roman State would have dragged on much, perhaps even for centuries . But the nobility was not capable of such sacrifice, such idealism is found only in some individuals, while the class never renounced its interests and privileges. Moreover, any sacrifice would have been useless, if Rome had not abandoned while his historic role, its global policy. A continuation in the way of conquering policy would inevitably reproduced in a short time the same evils. Such aspirations were, therefore, though inspired by noble intentions, completely regressive. Instead of aspiring to the highest form of culture and found a new social order based on the variety and harmony of the productive forces and receptive, they sought to escape through plasters, influences coming impetuously East, and at the same pile time increasing wealth, with whom he did not want nor could nor should start anything.

And also despised other circumstances those early proponents of Roman social reform. The unsustainability of the social conditions derived largely from the outdated ways of the Roman constitution. He was still in the realm of the City - State. Although possession of civil rights was independent of the home, its exercise was only possible in Rome, which had to exercise enormous attraction on rural populations, especially since, as noted often, participation in political life in the old had always strongly material aspect. The further away from Rome there lived a citizen, the less heavy in the life of the state. It was necessary to proceed with decentralization. More on this ran into an insoluble problem for the political experience of time. Only a genius could find a solution.

The first attempts at reform were unsuccessful, as the tribune of Licinius Crassus (145 d O), which wanted to distribute small plots of 1 3 / 4 acre. How to get the land should be planned to distribute, our sources do not need it. Shortly after a member of the Roman aristocracy, Laelius (140), the intimate friend of the most famous Roman of that time, African Scipio the Younger, destroyer of Carthage, presented a project worthy of consideration, which was later reconsidered under several application forms and many politicians as well-meaning but short-sighted, looking for the salvation of the Republic.

The state owned large tracts of land throughout Italy, especially in Campania. These public lands (ager public ") were cultured as explained on the basis of right of occupancy, not only by Roman citizens, but also by allies or confederates against payment of a tax on income, which in most the cases was not made. Even if every citizen had a right to such occupation, in reality, as we have seen, only those that had large capital were able to make use of that right. These available, then, large tracts of land, which were not his property but who are still members, from a strictly legal standpoint, to the State. Lelio proposed, with the progressive impoverishment of the masses, and restore the legal situation for needy citizens demand the restitution of land belonging to the State. But this claim really mean much. How could one expect the "civic sense" of aristocrats decided to return lands that they had added over generations and perhaps centuries, to his family estate in which they had already invested significant amounts of work and money and in many cases have turned deserts into fertile? But the issue did little way. Just Lelio had filed his suggestion, he rose quickly among the occupants of those lands a cry of indignation. The proponent noted with dismay the large extent of it and how to persist in this way would have led to an unprecedented and unexpected civil war. On the advice of his friends withdrew, therefore, its purpose and was, in thanks, the title of "judicious".

But only a few years had passed when the same thought held its resurrection, but this time advocated a strong and enthusiastic personality, also belonging to the nobility. Most often the drivers of the oppressed classes, aimed at their release, come from the ranks of the privileged and wealthy: Mirabeau, Sieyes, Lassalle and most of the current chiefs of socialism. Also the new host and head of the Roman proletariat, Tiberius Gracchus, he could, by birth and intelligence, fully participate in the feast of the lords. His father had occupied the highest public office, his mother, Cornelia, was the daughter of Scipio Major African, the man who had conquered the most dangerous enemy of Rome, the Carthaginian Hannibal (Battle of Zama, 202 ad O), breaking with this victory forever the power of Carthage. Tiberius Gracchus himself had already highlighted as an officer and quaestor, receiving clear evidence of popularity, so could go with the best catrera hopes the usual policy of the Roman nobility.

But his ambition was of a more noble. It was attracted by the material gain, wanting, instead, do something great. When he returned to Rome after military service, was among the lowest urban plebs some old comrades in arms, unworthy of traffic delivered to their civil and political rights. How deep was your impression arises in the most eloquent of his impassioned speech in favor of agrarian reform. "The wild beasts," said Tiberius in that famous speech, "who live in Italy, each have their lair, his bed, his hideout on the contrary, people who fight and die for Italy, own nothing except the light and the air. It i's seen wandering homeless with their wives and their children lie when our generals in the heat of battle urge soldiers to defend the temples and tombs on the enemy. Is there, perhaps, some of many Romans, who still holds the sacred altar of his family or the tomb of their elders? These so-called masters of the world, who do not own or a speck of land, fighting and dying for the lust and wealth of others. "

Tiberius Gracchus in this field was a task worthy of his warm heart and noble spirit. At the age of 30 years (134) presented its candidature for the Tribune, was elected and then, according to a circle of highly esteemed classmates, intelligent v generous, prepared to endorse the plan Lelio, withdrawn by the same author. Contrary to custom, Tiberius presented the project directly to the popular assembly, without prior notice to the Senate for its views and possible changes. By law Hortensia your procedure was perfectly legal, but from a political standpoint, Tiberius had acted recklessly. The strength of the aristocracy was all the more bitter given that its parent body, the Senate, had been mortified at one of their most important but usurped. Moreover, Tiberius had to think it offered fewer difficulties to proceed without consent against the will of the Senate. The discussion in the Senate would have led to limited and reduced, whereby the law would have lost much of its effectiveness.
The bill submitted by Tiberius Gracchus demanded that no Roman citizen or Confederate could hold more than 500 hours of public land (125 hectares), adding 250 days (62 1 / 2 hectares) for each of the two older children. Land and property rescued became free and were also required to agree to the former occupants a convenient compensation for improvements made. The land thus became the property of the State, should be divided into batches of 30 hours (7 1 / 2 acres) each and given to needy citizens, but not title, but as possessing inalienable and tax-free.

Tiberius Gracchus sought, as follows from the law, take into account also, if possible, the interests of the wealthy. From all appearances, even proposing something entirely new, but only the application of an old law which included the above provisions, perhaps it was again put into force the same basic law on communal lands, eventually fall into oblivion. Violent resistance from landowners reveals the extent to which those provisions had been violated. Yes Tiberius wanted to let those landowners, in addition to their private property, also the considerable increase of 125 - 250 hectares of state land, this means that large groups were still available for delivery. So great storm would not have been triggered by a few small assignments! But all resistance was futile. In large groups came to Rome, from campaigns to give their vote, farmers already failed or were on the brink of ruin, indeed, the enthusiastic dreamer inflamed eloquence succeeded in lighting his idea also to the urban proletariat, awakening in this aspiration for a life worthy of man and the abandonment of the idle life of guest.

Although the people did not save their applause for the words of the tribune, the adoption of the law was not as smooth and simple as Tiberius had imagined in his sanguine temperament. At the time of the vote was one of his colleagues, Marco Octavio, belonging, as Gracchus, the nobility, brought, based on its right tribune, the veto ( "intercessio") and repeated when Tiberius summoned shortly afterwards a second assembly for the same purpose. As this power of veto contained in the Constitution, Tiberius, if I wanted to stay in the realm of legality, he had no recourse but to defer reform next year. But this was not to his liking. In their fanatical enthusiasm for his law and firmly convinced that she could have stopped the increasing impoverishment of the masses, decided to break up opposition Octavio by going against the Constitution. Therefore proposed to the People's Assembly deprive Octavius of his office of Tribune. This procedure was certainly unheard of, but not unconstitutional per se, unless they mediate the veto of Octavio also against this motion, you have to admit that it happened. We proceeded, however, the vote, the town had already excited both by their driver, who declared deposed Octavius, choosing instead a staunch supporter of Tiberius. Thus eliminating the only opposition supported by the Constitution, tribes overwhelmingly passed the Farm Bill, but omitted the provision about compensation to occupiers for the improvements made to land. Unable to establish if Tiberius adopted this amendment the original project because of the irritation due to resistance from the owners or because of fears that the claim for damages reach so high that it is impossible to satisfy. The law was therefore more hated even by the landlords.

Reached the first hit, appeared immediately the real difficulty: the implementation of the law. On the one hand Tiberius had a windfall. With the single allocation of land to people lacking the means of life had not secured its economy. Lacked the tools, seeds and the means to live until the next harvest. This required such large sums of money that had never been required in Roman domestic politics and the State Fund could hardly sustain. In this urgent situation salvation came from the fact that Attalus III, king of Pergamum (Asia Minor), devoted friend of the Romans, had just died (133), leaving as heir to his vast fortune to the Roman people. This was stated at least in Rome, while the national party in that country claimed to be false will. Anyway, the fact is that shortly after acceptance for the project came to Rome graquiano Pergamon ambassador for the delivery of inheritance, and Tiberius then put his hand on it, proposing to the Assembly used heavily in those purchase everything you need for new agricultural locations, The nobility objected, using the lowest average and even spreading the stupid gossip that the ambassador had delivered Pergamon Tiberius regal in purple, but the tribes approved the proposal with great enthusiasm, as this solved also this pressing issue.

From easy solution was not, however, a second drawback, ie setting the land to be distributed. This was a very complicated task, since public lands were in many cases for centuries held by individuals. Because the state had long since stopped demanding the rent lawfully due him, he had erased almost entirely from the general consciousness the boundary between private property and the state, so it was not unusual for the change of ownership by purchase - sale. It was therefore necessary to examine the files of the State to establish what land had been delivered after every war won, as free to the public property and what had been, at least formally, the collective property of the State. This task required not only acumen and willpower, but also understanding and great care. Tiberius had appointed for that purpose by the People's Assembly to a three-member Commission, which should immediately take the challenge. Besides himself, the Assembly appointed his brother, Gaius, then very young, and his father, Appius Claudius, whose ancestor paved to Rome, as amended, the road to empire. From energy, ability and selflessness of these three men could be expected carry out its mission under the law, but the composition of the Commission by close relatives of the proponent did nothing but increase the existing irritation in the ranks of the wealthy. The Commission was treated with derision by the Senate, you were denied the diets that are usually allocated to employees for special functions outside the capital, and was set compensation did not exceed the salary of a laborer. Tiberius and his men stationed themselves on the work without being drawn into feuds as futile and insidious, but when his work is just beginning to move, the activity of Tiberius Gracchus was quickly and violently curtailed.

Tiberius Gracchus knew how great was the irritation it caused among the powerful and the annihilation of his person was fervently desired by the Roman aristocracy. He still protecting the inviolability tribunicia as a strong shield that would have returned to the head of the projectile shooter for the Tribune. Tiberius was decided, therefore, to resubmit his application for the tribune for the following year. Apparently this was not contrary to existing laws, but to custom, to touch and political decency. Annual fees for other waiting periods were arranged in the sense that an officer was out of the nomination during the year of their duties. Although the tribune did not fall between the judiciaries covered by that law, was deemed too natural that the tribunes, as in reality were no longer regarded as private servants of the people, but of all people, had to abide by the rules general, as had happened a long time in the past. The second application of Tiberius shocked, then, at least against the common law generally recognized. Even in the same college of the tribunes, basically inclined to Tiberius, not dared in the election day, despite the consent of the people, ignore the violent protests of the opponents.

The election was postponed for the next day and Tiberius was prepared to repel possible riots by force of the enemy. In fact, even before the voting begins tumult rose strongly, because the Senate had also mobilized their supporters. The Senate, meeting in a temple near the polling place, was in wait to escape at the right time, and under the guise of legality, the hated tribune. Spreading gossip is more awkward: it is often said that Gracchus sought to preserve the tribune without any choice, now that, as with Octavius, he had declared deposed all his colleagues. When Tiberius, in a moment, touched her head to indicate the risk of his life, his enemies interpreted this gesture as meaning that he claimed the royal diadem. It was the most stupid invention, it was enough for the nobility terribly exasperated. Your speaker in the Senate, Scipio Nasica, demanded the death of Tiberius, and when the presiding consul would not accede to this wish sacrilegious full advantage of the nobility went tumultuously the temple under the direction of Nasica and assailed the starting - Tiberius rivers, using pieces of chairs, walking sticks and other similar weapons. Graco's supporters had not even imagined such an attack and did not dare to receive the most illustrious personages of the state with the same weapons and even to contain them. It stopped the slaughter like timid sheep, besides their chief, 300 of his supporters covered the field (133 d C.). The aristocracy was triumphant.

Continued to maintain the legend about the vagaries of slain monarchical and treated him as well as its adherents as guilty of high treason. Tiberio's body is challenged the funeral and many of his followers were indicted for conspiracy against the republic lots were strangled in prison, while the murderer, Nasica Scipio was awarded the dignity of Pontifex Maximus.