The rise of Peronism

GONZALEZ, Oscar Pablo / Fernandez, Horacio.

"A political movement is not simply an expression of misery and pain, its existence is characterized by a belief common to many, who articulates a political solution to the misery and political diagnosis of their causes" (1)

As posed Gareth S. Jones on political movements, this is an essay that tries to deepen the relationship between the international situation and socio-political development in our country in the first half of the 1940s. In the relationship between growth of the labor movement, the Peronist political expression and the Second World War.

We try to discern the mechanisms that led to such tremendous polarization between who was the U.S. ambassador in our country and a colonel in the Argentine Army, summarized in the slogan Braden or Peron.

Was there interference from the United States in the 1946 elections?

What is the role Braden in the formation of the Democratic Union?

As posed by some authors, is the abuse of intervention ultimately favors ambassador to the electoral victory of the formula of the Labor Party formed by Perón-Quijano?

As shown have placed the focus of the work on the historical-political rather than on a sociological interpretation.

INTRODUCTION

In the introduction we will sketch the outlines of the three aspects that we integrate for the job:

a) A vision of the working class, especially from the import substitution phase, which will be one of the pillars of Peronism.

b) A summary of the most important events that occur after 1930, with the overthrow of the Hipólito Yrigoyen, by the Armed Forces.

c) An overview of the international situation, especially since the outbreak of the Second World War (1939-1945).

LABOR MOVEMENT

The labor movement has been defined as the backbone of Peronism, but what were the characteristics of the movement in the 1940s? During the 30s produced qualitative and quantitative changes in it.

From a quantitative point of view, in the early years of the decade, shows the numerical growth of the working class as a result of industrialization through import substitution. The cities of Buenos Aires and Rosario are the migratory flow mainly from the provinces of Northwest, Northeast and Cuyo.

The newcomers join the labor in emerging industries. It acts as a major factor in this process, the crisis of internal economies, combined with the attraction of the industrializing process.

As we can see qualitative ideological changes in the labor movement: note especially two;

1) A growing tendency toward political participation, accompanied by a new attitude toward the state.

2nd) increased identification with the movement's national problem.

To understand these changes in consciousness remember that the first two currents that hegemony to labor between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, are anarchism and socialism. The first argued, among other principles, the absolute repudiation of the political-institutional participation. An example that do not form or participate in any political party and boycott the elections.

Socialists instead articulate the struggle from labor organizations with political and institutional participation through the Socialist Party.

In 1903 the Guild Socialism suffers a split: the current call pure or revolutionary syndicalist union born with a critical stance regarding the political-institutional participation, approaching in some poses to current anarchist. This also suffers from divisions during the 1910s, an emerging moderda wing pro-settlement with the state.

In 1922 he founded the U.S.A. (Union Sindical Argentina). In this new plant has the current unionist majority share in it the Communists and Socialists. The latter in the following years and founded his own retreat center COA and communists are expelled.

In 1930 the socialist trade unions and created the General Labor Confederation (CGT). This new organization would be divided a few years later.

This long string of mergers, breakups, alliances and new breaks makes the 1943 coup, find a labor movement that lacks a single central trade union organization.

Before further progress should remember that the relationship between the labor movement and the state ranged from fighting and subsequent repression as in the case of the Tragic Week in 1919 and the great strike of the Province of Santa Cruz in 1921 - until acceptance State arbitration role in some specific claims conflicts during the 1930s. Turning to the situation of the labor movement in 1943, two trade union confederations are vying for leadership: CGT No. 1 and C.G.T. No. 2.

According to Matsushita:

"While No. 1 was characterized by its tendency to independence of the labor movement regarding political parties, especially the Communist Party's No. 2 was characterized by its inclination to link the labor movement and politics." (2)

Facing the revolution of June 4, 1943 the two CGT, adopt similar positions. Received favorably on the military government and various press releases criticizing the government agree to Castillo.

The axis of the statements focus on economic policy, quite unfavorable to workers (legislation, wages, cost of living), the systematic use of electoral fraud and violation of civil liberties. Another important axis is the union claims corruption in all spheres of the deposed government.

The labor movement, as noted earlier, is to identify with the national problem in the 1930s through the criticism of the Roca-Runciman laws of coordination of transport, privatization at the hands of foreign companies for some services municipal labor movement will lead to demands to include anti-imperialist struggle in their programs.

From another angle of history and sociology has approached the study of the hypothetical division of the working class of Argentina, from import substitution industrialization and the resulting internal migrants, older workers and new workers. We believe that this debate has been overtaken by current historiography.

POLITICAL SITUATION

One of the characterizations of the period from 1930 to 1943 in our country is the name of "Infamous Decade" and is one of the fundamental causes that justify the coup of June 1943.

The political prestige reached at that moment is so vast that it is beyond the scope of this work, but we can not fail to mention some of the salient facts that impact on society:

Economically:

a) Roca-Runciman
b) Creation of the Central Bank
c) Regulatory Boards
d) Loan unlock
e) Transport Corporation

Business Research:

a) Bureau of meat. (Research by Lisandro de la Torre - The murder of Enzo Bordabehere).
b) The purchase of land in El Palomar.
c) Commission Opinion Rodriguez Conde by bribes paid to the extension of concessions to power companies.
d) Negotiated with the purchase of armaments in the 1920s - (Being involved the president Agustín P. Justo).

Politically:

a) Electoral fraud
b) political scandals.

INTERNATIONAL SITUATION

Assuming ethnic population in Argentina, because of the immigration flow from the late nineteenth century and the beginning of this, the events unfolding in the world especially in Europe, have great impact on our society.

Hence the emergence of fascism in the 1920s and Nazism in the 1930s, will not be indifferent to the society in Argentina. The culmination of this process will be the Spanish civil war (1936-39) that will lead to an alignment on either side population and a confrontation within the Spanish community.

In the development of World War II we will look at different times that will redirect the various forces, both the external and the internal. Rather than shift will be abrupt changes such as the move from a position of neutrality to outright involvement in the conflict.

a) The first point is located from the invasion of Poland by Germany 01/09/1939 until 22/06/1941 when it invaded Russia. We need to note that the date of commencement of War is formal, as both Germany and Italy had openly intervened in the Spanish Civil War to support Francisco Franco had already been finalized and the occupation of Czechoslovakia by Hitler and Mussolini in Albania, so no one could doubt his intentions.

b) A second instance is developed from the entry into the conflict in Russia until the 07/12/1941 which is made the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor that will mean the entry of the United States to the fight-two years after that had been initiated. At this stage in the local political scene we see a change in position of some organizations (influenced or directed by the Argentine Communist Party) that a press pass staunch neutrality internally by Argentina's participation in the Allied camp.

c) The third period we can narrow down from 07/12/1941 until the end of strife between May and August 1945, upon detonation by U.S. atomic bombs on two Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. With the initiation of this period is to give the final shape of the two blocks, first the allies (U.S., Britain, France and Russia) and on the other axis (Germany, Italy and Japan).

From this moment we see a pressure increasing on the part of States Uniods to all Latin American countries for entry into the conflict. On this last point we need to mention and clarify some historiographical concepts regarding the neutrality maintained by our country until almost the end of the war.

Since 1939-beginning of the conflict-Argentina opens a letter of credit to Britain and increase the delivery of our products that you just arrive without any problems for neutrality maintained by our country.

As he puts Sergio Bagú:

"A powerful ally had then, behind the scenes the Argentine regime. It was the United Kingdom. What the government did with Castillo send meat and grain to bulk credit and it was enough for now. The break with the axis, however, not only would disrupt or diminish these shipments, but would put the country squarely within the orbit as Pan and rush had already begun painfully: the liquidation of British investments and their transfer to the hands Americans "(3)

As seen what is at the heart of the matter is an inter-imperialist conflict. Another historian Díaz Araujo, outlines the following:

"Because it's true this is the touchstone of the matter: the castle was not neutral but pro-Nazi Anglophile" (4)

To conclude this point we took other side as Michelangelo Scenna historiography, which says: "Foreign Policy in 1941, Castillo was the logical extreme of the Roca-Runciman. By no means was pro-Nazi and was accused at the time but excessively pro-British. Rather than an expression of nationalism, was the last aspect of colonialism. " (5)

We believe that from this analysis it is clear that the great support from Argentina's neutrality during the entire second World War, is Britain.

This is the international situation occurs when the Revolution of 1943 in our country.

DEVELOPMENT

With the military coup on June 4, 1943 opened a period of political transition in Argentina.

We will not expose in this paper the various versions historiography on the government's attempt Rawlings fails to swear and the coup within the coup that hovers Ramirez. We like poses that Diaz Araujo:

"The reasons for international or domestic policy now or then argued look like mere excuses to cover up the stark struggle for power" (6)

We must emphasize that this blatant power struggle also occurs in the GOU (Group of United Officers) military lodge that is the driving force behind the coup of June which we mention but do not go for not being part of our goal.

With the new government headed by General Pedro Pablo Ramirez, Argentina, continues to maintain a neutral position in the war despite mounting pressures to the contrary by the United States.

Regarding domestic politics on 27 November 1943 creates a new agency, the Ministry of Labor and Welfare, and was named to head the same Colonel John D. Peron, from this position begins to make itself known, taking some of the key concerns of the emerging workforce that continues to grow, now in greater numbers by the conjuncture of global conflict.

A premise of the new secretary of Labor and Welfare, was to enforce the laws, most of them socialist origin, but not applied or did half. Otherwise extend the range of application within the territory as the mills Tucuman and Salta, the quebrachales of Chaco, Corrientes and Misiones yerbatales where it undergoes delegations of the Secretariat to ensure compliance.

Some of the most important decree-laws enacted were:

Law 23,852, "Professional Associations" that gave the majority union union status of each trade.

Law 31,665, Retirement, by which the pension scheme was extended to virtually all workers in the country. With the enactment of this law gave rise to the first mass rally in which Peron spoke to a large number of workers in front of the Secretariat, on 4 December 1944. The event was organized by Angel Borlenghi, president of the Second Ordinary Congress of the CGT and Secretary of Commerce Employees Union, one of the most important leaders of the socialist trade unionism.

Law 28164, the famous "Statute of Pawn" from 1815 in that the side of the Province of Buenos Aires, condemned to every individual of the campaign to serve under a master, had not legislated on industrial relations in the Argentine countryside. The minimum wage, Sunday rest, vacation, severance and other paragraphs break with the paternalistic relationship with their peons rancher.

Law 32,347, which was formalized by the Labor Court, by which they set the rules and cumbersome procedures for compliance with labor laws.

These are some of the measures taken by the Ministry of Labor and apart from the agreements signed between employers and workers, where the state as an arbitrator award in favor of employees.

As posed Carlos S. Fayt:

"... was unquestionable that social improvements were the result of worker participation, that these improvements will benefit the working class and the opposition forces employers to these improvements and helped to define benefits for Peron's support of most of the leaders. They, thereafter, acted to defend convinced that Peron and the Secretary of Labor truly defending the interests of the working class. " (7)

Apart from labor laws, a measure that drove Peron was the fall and then freezing of rents by Decree 6141/44, which increased rapidly in popularity.

Meanwhile the U.S. pressures continue to increase for Argentina to break relations with the axis, especially after Chile, another who resisted, broke off relations in early 1943.

One of the actions proposed by Cordell Hull, Secretary of State, U.S. President T. Roosevelt was to provide modern weapons and large quantities to Brazil, to pressure the Argentine government.

In February 1944 Ramirez away from the presidency and is replaced by General E. Farrell, for which there is increased pressure.

As posed Alberto Ciria:

"... United States, in a change of tactics, refused to recognize (...) On June 22, 1944 United States called its ambassador to Washington Norman Armor. The Argentine government contends doing the same with Adrian Escobar, our ambassador to the North country traveling back to Buenos Aires. The State Department takes this opportunity to suggest to the other Latin American republics to withdraw their ambassadors accredited in Argentina within a fortnight. On 23 June 1944, the United States recognizes the Bolivian government "purged" of their guilt and Nazis. Argentina is the ultimate outcast.

On 15 August 1944 the U.S. government took the step that had long advocated Treasury Secretary Morgenthau: froze the gold reserves of Argentina in the United States. It banned the American merchant vessels touched Argentine ports, and extensive restrictions were applied to exports that were made to the Republic of Silver ". (8)

In domestic political terms, on December 31, 1943, has released a decree that provides for the dissolution of political parties also decreed compulsory religious education in Catholic primary schools and secondary schools throughout the country, leaving aside the tradition of secular education in force since 1884 -. Alongside these measures were stepped University named to head the various houses of studies to outstanding men of the clerical fraternity.

In early 1944 an earthquake in the province of San Juan and the "public collection" is performed becoming known beyond her acting work, the figure of Maria Eva Duarte.

Occur within the various military government infighting, the military sectors opposed to Colonel Peron did not sit idle as this, with Farrell's rise to the presidency passes to the post of Minister of War on February 26, 1944 and July 7 that year, the Vice President also retaining his post as Secretary of Labor and Welfare. We counted within these struggles the abortive attempt of Lt. Col. Thomas A. Duco.

When released to Paris by the allies, he made some statements of support led by the traditional political parties despite the dissolution decree.

Summing up the steps of the coup on 4 June 1943, after a year of being in office we can see great progress in the social field through the laws given in the labor force and a decline in the field prohibitions and political interventions.

The opposition starts a nuclear around slogans that relate to the war, and accusations of Nazism began to military rule combining the preaching of the traditional parties on civil liberties with incredible pressure from the United States to break off relations with the axis.

Some historians wonder, what happens in this moment with the political parties that raised the flags of social gains, as the Socialist Party and the Communist Party. What counts is the political and historical conjuncture mark orientation: all the support the camp of the allies. Based on this situation we see situations that seem incredible historical evolution, from 1941 U.S.

pressure on governments in the rest of America to establish diplomatic and economic relations with the USSR, on the other hand gives full support to the CTAL (Confederation of Latin American Workers) led by the Communists. In this aspect, Spanish historian José Luis Rubio poses:

"But the American support for C.T.A.L. is not without something in return very high, so high that it could be said without exaggeration that the Communists in the CTAL then were the "useful idiots", the "fellow travelers" of U.S. imperialism. The C.T.A.L. -Communist parties and all pro-Moscow official, adopt a position contrary to national and popular movements-oligarchic and anti-imperialists "of the moment (...) were in Argentina, with the pro-imperialist oligarchy against the masses in day of October 17, 1945 (...) In Bolivia Villarroel-driver were against union miners and the awareness of the indigenous population, and a man who tried to control the tin-mining companies who hung of a bluff in an uprising "fascist" who joined the Communists with representatives of the "thread" oligarchic. (...) The C.T.A.L. adopts a position contrary to all social movements claim undertaken by workers from domestic firms or foreign. Condemns all strikes (...) All work aspirations must be sacrificed to the war effort against fascism. " (9)

The Argentine isolation grows, the Farrell government is not recognized by the United States, the vast majority of Latin American embassies were empty by the withdrawal of ambassadors, following the directives of the U.S. State Department. In this situation we add the 'sport of self-exile "held by political opponents, Miguel A. Scenna adds:

"Nicolas Repeto (high socialist leader) writes honestly about his memoir," I left Buenos Aires on its own determination at that time because nobody threatened or persecuted "continues to pose Scenna:" Not many, because it says there were twenty Repetto (...) more or less founded companies, one of which, of course, was called "Association de Mayo" with the clear historical and emotional connection that wanted to link with the exiles of Roses and formed a Board of Exiles, where the Repetto it represented the Socialist Party, the Democratic Progressive Julian Noble, Agustin Rodriguez Araya Radical Civic Union, José Aguirre House conservatives and Rodolfo Ghioldi communism. No one was absent. (10)

As you can see this "Board of Exiles" is the cornerstone of the future "Democratic Union", had settled in Montevideo and will issue a memo to all peoples of the Americas to work with the restoration of democratic rule in the Argentina. As Scenna says:

"That is, a warm invitation to intervene in the internal affairs Argentines" (11)

In January 1945 consumed the last attempt of Germany in the battlefield in western Saarland and failed in Bostogne in the East one hundred and eighty Soviet divisions break through Poland and on January 27, crossed the Oder River by foot in Germany two hundred miles from Berlin.

In the Pacific front Americans landed on Luzon and the British advance into Burma. The shaft is falling apart.

In Italy Mussolini was shot by Italian partisans in late April, in early May and Hitler committed suicide on the morning of May 7 Germany signs unconditional surrender. The last shots of this race is going to hear in the Pacific in late May and all that remained was the invasion of Japan.

In these circumstances one of the allies, the United States makes the decision to first use of atomic energy and the August 6, 1945 throws the bomb at Hiroshima, repeating the operation three days launching its second atomic bomb on Nagasaki. U.S. is showing the international community that is the hegemonic power at the end of World War II.

Politically, the allies are promoting the creation of the United Nations, an international organization whose theoretical goal would the peaceful resolution of international conflicts.

Argentina to join the United Nations declares war on March 27, 1945 to the shaft. From that moment fully normalized diplomatic relations with the countries of America.

In early July, Farrell formally undertakes to quickly call elections absolutely free. In August he lifts the state of siege that motivates the return of exiles from Montevideo had already standardized the University auditors government withdrawing from them.

In May the diplomatic normalization scene appears in the new United States ambassador, Spruille Braden.

With the arrival of Braden, the diplomatic relations that were coming to a rapid normalization, as Argentina had signed the minutes of Chapultepec-Mexico-(Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace), declared war on the axis and marginalizing the elements pro-Nazi by resignation or removal from office, they will quickly blur, his behavior will be characteristic of a viceroy arrived in the domain of a king of divine origin.

Braden is worth noting that in his long career both in the political arena or as a representative of the Rockefeller interests in Latin America was not characterized by respect for the sovereignty of Latin Americans. The ambassador had already left his mark on the Bolivian-Paraguayan war in the 1930s safeguarding the interests of Standard Oil, also led the campaign against the government of Lázaro Cárdenas when he nationalized the Mexican oil in 1936. A subsequent passage by Argentina, and in the 1950s, we see him leading the campaign against the government of Jacobo Arbenz in Guatemala (12)

Amid protests from the Argentine government, Braden travels inside the country criticizing the government, his reply was:

"... that as the U.S. ambassador in Argentina was credited both to the Argentine people and with the Argentine government "(13)

Viceroy ambassador become the great defender of democracy will make rapid progress through nuclear around the opposition political parties, is the binding element of the future "Democratic Union", which depicts the most dissimilar Argentina's social structure, from the Conservative Party through the Radical to the Communist Party including the Rural Society, the Board of Trade, the Industrial Union of Argentina and the Chamber of Commerce.

On June 16 appears before the public a manifesto of industrialists and trade which came out against the government's social policy and oppose the conquests of the workers.

In response to this pressure, thousands of workers congregate on July 12, 1945 against the Ministry of Labor and, in this mobilization also involved non-Peronist trade unions.

As we see in the middle of 45, however, two well-defined fields in Argentina society, first of all working-class radicalism sectors Irigoyenism (WROUGHT who had been from the beginning to the side of Peron, after encolumnados management) and the other all the traditional parties, including the Socialist Party and the Communist Party (in lawlessness in much of the last fifteen years), middle and hegemonic economic interests within the fabric woven by the U.S. ambassador .

Moved schematically what happened in the battlefield of World War II, who had already completed, the political struggle in Argentina.

As an example, remember the words of Rodolfo Ghioldi, one of the top leaders of the Argentine Communist Party, at the ceremony on 1 September at Luna Park when greeting one of his political allies, "We welcome the reorganization of the opposition Conservative Party operated in to dictatorship, without detriment to the social traditions is poised to embrace national unity ... "but more important is the vision that gives respect to international perspectives;

"Conservation of friendship with Britain without detriment to national development; improve radically with the United States, starting from the line of good-neighborliness, now taken up by Secretary Byrnes and so heartily endorsed by Mr. Braden" (14)

When on August 28 the Radical Civic Union endorses Democratic Coordinating Board "is already completed legal assembly of the Democratic Union.

Your company presentation will be through the March of the Constitution and Freedom, on September 19. According to the newspapers of the time was something never seen on the streets of Buenos Aires, compact crowd marching blocks from Congress Plaza Callao to Plaza Francia, says Scenna:

"The head of the column was formed by the staffs of allied parties in the Democratic Union for the beneficiaries of the fraud and corruption Justismo by the magnates of the Infamous Decade, all brotherly arm in arm. Rivalries, hatreds, doctrines were behind. They were all one "(15)

Should be added that also participate in the march, senior U.S. and British embassies.

Braden could retire quietly, "the creature that had given birth, began to take its first steps," as he was promoted to Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs. Traveling on 23 September, but not before promising to use his new position to save democracy in Argentina.

This situation is reflected within the armed forces in late September there is an attempted military uprising led by Rawson in Cordoba to overthrow the government of Farrell, but fails. Not so the statement of Brigadier General Eduardo Avalos-by-Campo de Mayo on October 8 posed Peron exclusion of all government positions, the same day he submitted his resignation as Vice President, Secretary of War and Secretary of Labor and Welfare.

In giving the resignation of entire cabinet, setting the date for general elections to February 1946.

Leading the Executive Branch is Farrell but only two ministers, Avalos as War Minister and Admiral Vernengo Lima as Minister of Marine.

With these measures and the tumor is removed, Peron was not on any charge, but there is a government with only two ministers in charge of the rest of the portfolio, that does not conform to Democratic Coordinating Board first requiring the delivery of government Supreme Court or the "unconditional surrender" (as the surrender of the shaft) and a cabinet headed by Dr. Juan Alvarez. Farrell accepts and entrusted with the mission to form a democratic cabinet.

As Felix Luna poses with respect to the demands of the moment;

"They talked openly of making" the Nuremberg tribunals. He saw the men at arms in an attitude of surrender. Instead of filling the power vacuum that had occurred, wanted to take total power, without realizing that lacked the strength to do so and that the army had done everything he could do. Require more was absolutely unreal. "(16)



OCTOBER 17, 1945

Peron ousted from office, the next step the government is sending arrested Martin Garcia Island. At the head of the executive remains Gen. Farrell, but the strong man of the moment is Gen. Avalos. They begin the nine days that shook Argentina.

Unions call for mobilization without waiting for the call of the CGT, in fact forcing the leaders of it to open the discussion and take a stand (an example is the mobilization of FOTI-workers of the sugar industry in the Northwest from October 15). The Confederal Central Committee (CCC) takes place on October 16, it discusses two positions: one is that of those planning to convene a general strike demanding the release of Peron, the other are those who are refuse to take this action, invoking the union regardless off what they consider an internal problem of the military government. In the vote C.C.C. succeed the first by 21 votes to 19, the labor union calls for general strike on 18 October (the text of the call to strike did not directly mention Peron, but demanded "freedom for all civilian and military prisoners ... "The CGT as such could not call out for freedom of someone who was not labor).

By taking this step the C.G.T. coordinates and channels a protest movement that was growing from the bases barely heard of the arrest of Peron.

The state of mobilization, both in com unions in the districts of Greater Buenos Aires, carried in the early hours of 17 October the workers leave the work and returning to the Plaza de Mayo, (the following is true abandonment instructions of the strike committee of the CGT).

The government initially hampered the mobilization, but divisions among military leaders, prevents him from obtaining the unanimous support of the Armed Forces to begin clamping.

In the final hours of freedom are commanded by Colonel Peron (at that time was in the Military Hospital) is moved to the Casa Rosada, from whose balconies addresses the crowd.

Peron accelerates its upward around his figure heterogeneous link together two political and social fronts.

The impact of popular mobilization was very great in the various sectors of society, Moon points out com;

"He was without doubt the most important day of our contemporary history because he pointed out the fallacy of the traditional parties and the factors previously existing power to exalt an element that everyone had always invoked, but that did not exist as physical fact Specifically: the masses, pure people, common man who broke the schemes of their leaders, even the most respectable, to impose its will "(17)

CAMPAIGN

After those great feats of strength and mobilization of the two fields of society-that of Argentina, September 19 and October 17, starts the election campaign. But while the "Democratic Union" which is being realized, will have the party machines of its components in the opposite camp there were no parties or mechanisms that could take advantage, it should create organizations that endorse the submission of Peron had past situation in retirement-election bid. On October 24 the Labor Party was founded based on the unions. All its leaders come from the union camp, among others are: Luis Gay (phone), Cipriano Reyes (meat), Monsalvo (rail), Perez (commercial), José Tesoriere, Alcides Montiel, several of them from socialist, syndicalist or anarchist which proclaim Perón's candidacy for president. On the 29th of the month there is a detachment of the Radical Civic Union which is constituted as UCR (Renewal Board) in support of Peron. The same is to be elected vice presidential candidate, the nominee is Hortensio Quijano. These two

new parties will receive support from members of FORGE importantísimmo (Radical guiding force of the Young Argentina) which was dissolved on 15 November 1945. His brief record of solution leaves no doubt:

"Declares that the thought and the aims pursued by creating WROUGHT are met by defining a popular movement in political and social conditions that are the collective expression of national will and resolve (...) dissolving WROUGHT action by releasing its affiliates.

Arthur Firman Jauretche - President
Darío Alessandro - Secretary of the Assembly "(18)

These two organizations, the Labor Party and UCR (Renewal Board) - will join smaller groupings such as "civic center" and the inside and the Radical Civic Union in Salta Yrigoyenist wins provincial elections. As we can see in this field has been a social and political front but unlike the opponent, there is a hegemonic figure is Colonel Peron.

The Democratic Union proclaims the formula consisting of the radicals, José P. Tamborini candidate for president and vice president Enrique Mosca December 27, 1945. At the same convention is ratified participation in the Union for Democracy and approving the election platform (despite the opposition of Amadeo Sabattini, Honorio Pueyrredón and Elpidio Gonzalez among others in the future Intransigence, who oppose the participation of the UCR the Democratic Union).

As we see the peak summer is 45-46, Argentina society massively involved in the acts of both political and social fronts. The leading candidates touring the country on trains of the "Freedom" or "La Victoria".

The Argentine episcopate issued a pastoral where combat atheism and praises the law of religious education in schools (giving thus a latent support for the formulation of the Labor Party).

The last months of the season pass without major incident. There are only two elements which some analysts took to the electorate to dump the formula Perón-Quijano. The first was the discovery of a significant contribution of money to the campaign funds of Democratic Union by a camera bosses.

The second element of fundamental importance was the publication of the "Blue Book" by the Department of State United States. This publication, driven by Braden, accusing the Argentine government and Peron of Nazi fascism friendly activities. To base the prosecution was based on some documents seized in the German Chancellery and through its manipulation was to demonstrate that Peron and his collaborators were the bridgehead in Latin America from the Axis forces.

The effect on society caused Argentina's exactly the opposite from that intended, as an important sector will vote for candidates of the Labor Party in protest at U.S. interference in the election campaign. It's worth noting that it is polarized in a single slogan Braden or Peron.

To end the electoral landscape analysis transcribe Smith Jr., mentioned by Alberto Ciria:

"While the Democratic Union promised" social justice "to Argentine workers, Peron could draw attention to the specific benefits that are attached, including salary increases, bonuses and discounts for rentals, with the caveat that these benefits were only a sample of what to expect if elected president. " (19)

The election is held on February 24, the formula Perón-Quijano wins by 56% of the vote against 44% of Tamborini-Mosca.

The various forces considered the elections generally as beyond reproach.

CONCLUSIONS

Peronism has been characterized from an identification with European models falls within the Fascism, Bonapartism or Caesar. An attempt to define it as a result of the transition or emerging that crosses traditional agrarian society on their way to a modern industrial society. This, for example, is the thesis of Gino Germani and Torcuato Di Tella.

Rodolfo Puigróss defines it as a national liberation movement, multi-class, popular and revolutionary base (identified with national liberation movements emerged with the decolonization process, which occurs at the end of WWII).

Michael Richard Jeni Murmis and characterize it as the expression of a developmental stage of the class struggle in Argentina (marking it as a degree or level of development of class consciousness of Argentine workers).

These are some of the many interpretations that emerge from studies of Peronism address, from sociology, political theory and historical sociology.

We have tried-and without claiming any comparison with such work-relate the origins of Peronism and the international context, considering the features essential for our country dependent. As posed by the historian Horacio Pereyra:

"In countries dependent historical times are not determined by themselves. Peron developed a successful strategy for achieving power, favored by the international situation was conditioned (...) externally by the refusal of U.S. aggression, and internally by transnationalized sectors and partners, plus those who took refuge in a narrow-minded opposition "(20)

This narrow-minded opposition, "Pereyra-posed will mechanically transfer scheme vs. Fascism. Anti-Fascist Front, ignoring the specificity of the real situation in Argentina. It falls into the mistake of not differentiating that Nationalism is a developed country expansionist policy, is fascism or Nazism but in one country is dependent anti-imperialism.

Antifascist Fronts In that form under the "guidance" of the Allied powers there is an arc of solidarity that goes from the Catholics, socialists and liberals to communists, fighting with weapons in hand against the occupation forces. As you can move this situation to a totally different process conditions as is Argentina?

How the components of the Democratic Union allow public and shameless interference of S. Braden?

We believe that, when Peron, the business cycle of a process concerning social and economic pop does not fit into the frameworks of the traditional political superstructure, which excludes the "free and democratic world" in the fight against the "Nazi-fascism .

From this process we can say that the emerging phenomenon of Peronism would be recognition within the social structure of the new sector that has developed, and workers. In the same way that the middle sectors are incorporated through the turn of the century radicalism.

It's worth noting that this addition, workers goes far beyond economic and social achievements, as he claims D. James:

"The fundamental appeal of Peronism is its ability to redefine the notion of citizenship within a broader context, essentially social. The question of citizenship itself and access to full political rights, was a powerful aspect of Peronist discourse, where he was part of a language of protest, popular, high profile, facing political exclusion (.. .) partly also the strength of that interest for the political rights of citizenship stemmed from the record of scandals of the "infamous decade" that followed the overthrow of the military Yrigoyen in 1930 "(21)

The relationship established with the United States after the triumph of Perón-Quijano formula is developed along the same route that occurred during these three years we have looked, at times with big ups and downs. When the Allied front was broken and the Cold War begins, separating into two blocks, the victors of the war, Argentina will lift the policy of the Third Position in the international arena and will be one of the few countries that will not to participate in the Korean War, beginning in 1950.

Are to develop themes of fundamental importance as the welfare state conepto relationof applied to the Peronist government. The planning of the economy through the Five Year Plan. As it implements the I.A.P.I. We could put many points, but our goal is to bring a material, trying to take a different approach to relate the international situation, its incidence, with the Argentine political moment.

(1) Jones, Gareth Stedman, "Rethinking Chartism" Languages of Class: Studies in English Working. Cambridge, 1984.

(2) Matsushita, Hiroschi: Argentine Workers Movement, 1930-45: projections in the origins of Peronism ".

(3) BAGU, Sergio: "Argentina in the World - The reality Argentina in the Twentieth Century."

(4) DIAZ ARAUJO, Enrique: "The conspiracy of 43 - The GOU: militaristic experience in Argentina".

(5) Scenna, Michelangelo: "The long misunderstanding. History of the Argentine-Yankees. The time of confrontation. "

(6) DIAZ ARAUJO, Henry, op. cit.

(7) Fayt, Carlos S.: "The nature of Peronism".

(8) CIRIA, Alberto: "Parties and Power in Modern Argentina (1930-1946).

(9) RUBIO, José Luis: "The international workers in America."

(10) Scenna, Miguel Angel: "F.O.R.J.A. Una Aventura Argentina - (Yrigoyen to Peron). "

(11) Ibid.

(12) Garcia Lupo, Rogelio: "The revolt of the generals". This book tells the story broadly S. Braden.

(13) Smith, Jr.: "Yankee Diplomacy" taken from Ciria Alberto.

(14) Ghioldi, Rodolfo: "The Communists in the service of our country."

(15) Scenna, Miguel Angel: "F.O.R.J.A. ...

(16) LUNA, Felix: Argentina from Peron to Lanusse 1943/1973.

(17) Ibid.

(18) Document: Minutes of dissolution F.O.R.J.A.

(19) CIRIA, Alberto: "Matches ...

(20) PEREYRA, Horacio: "Some theories for the analysis of Peronism (1943-1955)"

(21) James, Daniel, "Resistance and Integration." Peronism and the working class Argentina 1946-1976. Translation of Luis Justo

Octavian Augustus (Third part)

The Twelve Caesars
Gaius Suetonius


Biography Part Three Octavian Augustus

LXXI. Of all these accusations or calumnies, of having prostituted which was more easily refuted by the purity of his life at that time and thereafter. It seems that was also less passionate about the luxury of what was said, since after the capture of Alexandria, of all the riches of kings aside by a glass of clay, fusing all gold everyday. But, nevertheless, was always inclined to women, and say they wanted especially with age virgin seeking that this is everywhere, and even his own wife searched for her. As for his reputation as a gambler, not worried in the least, and always played with abandon, calling it a comfort, especially in old age, he played, therefore, both in December as in any other month, whether or not day holiday. Of this there can be no doubt, because although it is preserved a letter that reads: I have dined, my dear Tiberius, with whom they know. Vinicius and Lilius, father, have come to increase the number of guests. The older we played with dice, at dinner, yesterday and today. As and six lost, and spent the money game for granted, but Venus takes it all. In another letter he says: My dear Tiberius've been pleasantly feasts of Minerva, having played relentlessly all day. Your brother complained, but ultimately, their losses have been severe, and eventually changed the fate and recovered from their disasters. As for me I lost twenty thousand sesterces, because of my regular donations, because if he wanted me to pay the beating of my adversaries and ill give nothing to the losers would have won more than fifty thousand. But I prefer this, because goodness I am worth my eternal glory. His daughter writes: I have sent two hundred and fifty money, I have as much to each guest, to play at dice or at odd and even during dinner. Augustus was, however, very moderate in their other customs and was protected from censure.

LXXII. Dwelt first near the old Forum on the ladder ring, in a mansion that belonged to the speaker Calvo. He served on the Palatine Hill after the house, no less modest, Hortensio, neither was spacious and was decorated, for its galleries were narrow and common stone, having marble or tiles on the rooms. Bedtime for over forty years, winter and summer, in the same room, and always spent the winter in Rome, despite having experienced the air of the city was contrary to health in this season. When he had a secret business deal or want to work without being interrupted, shut himself in the top of his house, in a case he called his Syracuse or museum, or a fifth retired immediately, or home of any of its freedmen. When going to bed feeling ill Maecenas home. Withdrawals he liked best were those near the sea, as the islands of Campania, or the villages located around Rome as Lanuvio, Praeneste, Tibur, where often administered justice under the portico of the temple of Hercules. He did not like houses too big and expensive, and did raze to the ground one fifth of his granddaughter Julia, whose construction had cost huge amounts. On their own, which were very simple, cared less of the statues and paintings to galleries, bushes and things whose value depends on their rarity or antiquity, like the bones of giant animals that are in Capri, and those gives the name of giant bones and weapons of the heroes.

LXXIII. Can judge its economy in the removal of the beds and tables that already exist, and they are hardly worthy of a particularly wealthy. Went to bed at a very low bed and dressed with great simplicity. Never used other clothes that he concocted at home his sister, his wife, daughter or granddaughters. His dress was not narrow nor broad, nor was its broad nor narrow lacticlavia. He wore shoes seem a bit high for taller, was always in her bedroom suit and shoes he carried in the Forum, to be ready to present in case of sudden occurrence.

LXXIV. Frequent guest, but in these foods, always regular, carefully distinguished the ranks and people. Valerius Messala concerns that it never admitted to his table to any freedom, except Menas, who had granted all the rights of free birth, for having made delivery of the fleet of Sextus Pompey. Augustus himself tells us that one day he was eating with an old soldier of his guard, in whose house he was. Sometimes he sat at the table after the other and stood before their peers, having started to eat before arrival and continuing after leaving him. Her meals usually consisted of three services, and six in the great feasts, and the more modest era, both showed more cheerful. He tried to talk with silent or spoke only in whispers, and did go musicians, buffoons, clowns and dancers of the Circus, and most often poor orators.

LXXV. Festivals and ceremonies celebrated with great magnificence, but often not looking at it more than once ridiculed. Thus, in the Saturnalia, and at other times, at his choice, sending gifts to friends, consisting of dresses, gold, silver, coins from all parts, old parts of the time of kings or of foreign manufacture, coarse fabrics, sponges , tweezers, scissors and other objects of the same gender, with dark markings and double meanings. In their meals did draw lots of very unequal value, or put on sale tables overturned, depending on the chance to be undertaken or frustrate the expectations of the buyer. For each table there was a tender, and the guests were communicating to each other their good or bad fortune.

LXXVI. He ate very little (or even omit these details), and always of common things. Especially like bread mixed, small fish, handmade cheeses and fresh figs, the species that ripens twice a year, ate often before the usual time, at any time, according to the needs of their stomach. In a letter says: I have eaten in the carriage bread and dates, and in another: The Numa Palace return to my home, ate in the litter one ounce of bread and some raisins. A Tiberius wrote: No Jew who observes fasting more rigorously on the Sabbath day from what I've seen today, until the early hours of the night but I have not eaten in two bites before I bath perfume. Do not follow other rules than his appetite, it happens sometimes dine alone before or after dinner to the guests, during which nothing remained unproven.

LXXVII. He was also very sober in wine. Cornelius Nepos relates that in his camp before Modena drank only three times during the meal. Later in the midst of its greatest excesses only drank six cups, when exceeded, vomited. His preference for the wine strong, but it was strange that he should drink during the day, instead taking bread dipped in cold water, or a piece of cucumber, or a head of lettuce, or even a sour fruit and juicy.

LXXVIII. After the midday meal was delivered a moment to rest, clothing and shoes, covered feet and placing his hand over his eyes. After dinner he retired to his bed work, where watched part of the night until finished, or left at least very advance what he lacked resolve the issues at hand. He then went to bed and never slept more than seven hours, that were not even continuous, as in this space of time awake three or four times. If, as usual, did not recover interrupted sleep, did you read or recite stories: after returning to sleep v ordinarily remained in bed until after dawn. Never watched in the dark without someone to accompany him. He did not like getting up early, and when some sacrifice or public duty obliged him to get up early, trying to not experience much discomfort, lying in a servant of his house near the place where I had to go, but despite this precaution, too often sleep over him when he carried through the streets, and if anything happened that would make stopping the litter, seized the opportunity to sleep.

LXXIX. His appearance was very nice with no change with age but showed no taste for adornment, no care was becoming by the hair, which made him hastily cut off several barbers at once on the chin, sometimes it was cut too little, others much, and while doing reading or writing. It was so serene countenance, and spoke, and to remain silent, that a Frenchman, belonging to one of the leading families in the country, confessed one day to own who to go through the Alps he came up with an excuse to talk, but with intention of throwing to a precipice and only appearance was enough to stop him in his resolution. His eyes were bright and shiny and would even consider that they are endowed with divine power somehow. So when he stared at one, liked to drop his eyes before the sun, lost in his old age, however much the left eye view. His teeth were small, light and uneven, slightly curly hair and some blond eyebrows together, medium ears, nose aquiline and pointed, dark complexion, short stature (although he attributed freedman July Morato five feet nine inches ), but so provided its members to observe that his short statue was necessary to see side by side taller than him.

LXXX. He had, say, his body covered with blotches, and chest and belly natural signals arranged like the stars in the constellation Ursa, intense itching, and the constant use of a stiff brush also welled calluses, which had degenerated into empedines. He had the hip, thigh and left leg a little weak, and often limping on this side, but remedied this weakness by means of bandages and canes. From time to time experienced so much inertia in the index finger of his right hand, which, when it was cold, had to write around it a circle of horn. It also complained of pains in bladder, which only subsided when throwing stones in the urine.

LXXXI. Suffered during his lifetime, several serious diseases and dangerous especially after the submission of Cantabria, had infarcts in the liver, losing all hope of cure. On the advice of Antonio Musa then followed the bold approach of the enemy, nothing had been achieved with hot fomentation, turned to the cold, and he recovered. He suffered from other ailments that even attacking him every year on a fixed day, being almost always wrong in the month he was born: he kindled the diaphragm spring and early fluxions suffered when wind blew from the south.

LXXXII. In winter you wore four layers beneath the thick cloak; added wool shirt and jacket, offering shelter to thighs and legs. In summer he slept with the doors of his chamber open and often under the portico of his palace, where the air was cooled by several fountains and a slave where he was also responsible for fanning. He could not endure the sun even in winter, and never walked the air, even at home without a headscarf. He traveled in a litter, and often at night, moving slowly and short stages, used to go to two days or Tubir Praeneste and when possible preferred to sea. Took great care of his poor health and bathed very rarely, preferring to rub with oil and sweat the heat, making him meet you later on warm water or warmed in the sun. Where, due to nerves needed sea baths, or thermal Albula, was content to sit on a piece of wood, which gave the Spanish name of Dureta, and dived into the water his hands and feet alternately.

LXXXIII. Immediately after the civil wars quit riding exercises and weapons in the field of Mars, first replacing the ball hard and wind, soon was limited, however, to walk on foot or in a litter, and ended walking, running jumping, covered with light canvas or thick blanket, depending on the season. When I wanted to give some rest to his spirit, fishing or play dice, the taba or nuts with children who loved and sought him everywhere, especially Mauro and Syrians. For the dwarfs, misshapen and deformed as the hated mockery of nature and objects of foreboding.

LXXXIV. Since childhood so successfully applied as a desire to study the eloquence and belles-lettres. Muciense During the war, and despite the huge weight of business, be sure to read every day, composed, and practiced in the domain of the word. Never spoke in the Senate, or the people or the soldiers without having thought worked slowly and his speech, though not without the ability to improvise. To avoid exposure to forgetfulness and not waste time memorizing, took the habit of reading every word. Prepared in advance to their private conversations, and when they should be about serious matter, was written even they should have with Livia, and then talked reading, fearing that improvisation would make him appear too short. He had some tenderness in his voice unique, and regularly took lessons from a master of euphony, but sometimes, due to disorders of the throat, had to resort to the voice of a preacher to speak to the people.

LXXXV. He composed many works of prose genres, and recited some in his circle of friends who served as his audience, among these are responses to Brutus, concerning Coton, of which he read most, despite being old, but had to order Tiberius finished reading, she also wrote the exhortations to philosophy and the memoirs of his life in thirteen books that embrace until the war of the Cantabrian and left unfinished. Also tried poetry, surviving him a little work in hexameter verses, whose title and subject is the Sicily and a short collection of Epigrams, which generally worked in the bathroom. It started with great enthusiasm a tragedy of Ajax, but not satisfied with the style, destroyed, one day his friends asked what had become of Ajax, Ajax replied that his had fallen on a sponge.

LXXXVI. He adopted a simple style and elegant at once, so far from vain pomp affected as rudeness, or as he said, composed of old words which have the smell of sick. His principal care was to express thoughts clearly, and to do better, not to hinder or restrain the intelligence of readers, not spared the propositions that determine the meaning of words or conjunctions linking phrases, and whose abolition, if you increase the grace of style, is at the expense of clarity. He despised equally the writers who create new words lavishly and those who want to banish the old, making tough opposition to these two defects. Patrons paying particular attention to and parody to correct him, he kept his censure flowery fragrance style. Nor Tiberius forgave his fondness for big words and enigmatic. Reprimand also in his letters to M. Antonio for his habit of writing things that are easier to admire than to understand, and mocking because rehearsed all styles and did not know what fixed, added: Hete in deep trouble: do not know what Annio Cimber imitate or Skinny Veranius or if you use the words that Crispus Sallust has taken the Origins of Cato, or if you do happen to our language the fickleness of empty sentences and words of the speakers from Asia. In another letter he tells his granddaughter Agrippina, celebrating its discretion: Beware especially of writing or speaking emphatically.

LXXXVII. For his autograph letters you see in family conversation was using many notable phrases. For example, speaking of bad payers, said: They will pay in the Greek Kalends. When advised to bear this fate, whether it might be, he wrote: be content with that Cato. To express the speed with which he had done something, said: Before you cook the asparagus. Almost always wrote baceolus by stultus (silly), pulleiaceus by pullus (animal husbandry), vacerrosus by cerritus (crazy). To say I am wrong I am writing in vaporous state, instead of the word lachanizare, with which usually expresses the state of languor, of betizare used, said potholes by sumus (we are) and domes, in the genitive singular, for domus (house), to show that this was in the beginning and not ignorance, never wrote these words differently. He also noted that in his manuscripts did not divide the words, and instead of placing in the top of the line following the letters that were left in a line, placed them under the last of this line and surrounded them with a stroke.

LXXXVIII. It noted much the spelling, ie how and why established by the grammarians to write, and apparently felt like they want to be written as we speak. Widespread misconception is to ignore or reverse letters and syllables, and not talk about it if I had not read with surprise in some authors, who replaced him as ignorant and a regular consular legacy for writing ixi by ipsi. When he wrote in figure put the b in a, c for by well with the other letters, for x put two a.

LXXXIX. He was very fond of Greek literature. and it took great superiority. It had the teacher to Apollodorus of Pergamum, which was already old when his young disciple took with him from Rome to Apollonia. Achieved after treatment varied with frequent scholarship philosopher Arens and his sons Dionysius and Nicanor. Never came, however, speak Greek properly or dared to write anything in this language. When circumstances demanded Latin writing, ordering another to translate the writing. He was smart in poetry, and enjoyed especially the old comedy, making represent frequently in public performances. What more curious looking at the writers of both languages were the precepts and examples to the public or private life; the copied word for word and usually sent them to their delegates to the generals, governors of provinces and Rome magistrates warnings or advice when needed. There were books to read full Senate, to make them available to people through edicts, and the speeches of Q. Metellus on the Propagation, and Rutilio on how to build, with this system is intended to prove that there had been the first to understand the importance of these two cases, but that the ancient Romans had occupied them. Favored by all means to the mills of his century, listened patiently and pleasure reading all the plays, stories, poems, speeches, dialogues, but not like that issue be taken for his praise, unless the work was of serious style and renowned author, recommended that the magistrates will not allow his name prostituyese literary contests.

XC. With respect to their superstitions, here is what is says is unwisely afraid of thunder and lightning avert the dangers of which he believed always carrying a cowhide marina. Approaching storm lurked in underground vaulted place, and this fear came from having once dropped Victorian lightning near him during an overnight journey, as originally said.

XCI. Greatly worried him their dreams and what he referred to it in others. The day of the battle of Philippi had decided, feeling a bit sick, do not leave your tent, the dream of a friend Moviola to change resolution, and rightly so, because, taken their enemies camp and falling on his bed, acribilláronlo beating, believing that was in him. By the spring was dreadful visions, very persistent, but uncertain and void, and the rest of the year was less frequent and less fanciful. At a time when I often visited the temple dedicated to Jupiter the Thunderer on the Capitol, he dreamed that Jupiter Capitoline had complained about this neighborhood that took away his worshipers, and said he had given to Jupiter the Thunderer as porter in the morning Next was garrison the top of this temple with bells such as those put on the doors. As a result also of their sleep every year on a fixed day begging the people, and extended his hand to passers-by to receive a few cards.

XCII. Considered as certain some auspices. If in the morning they put the right foot left shoe, it was a bad omen, if when he went for a long journey by land or sea mist fell, the omen was good and announced early and safe return. The wonders aroused much attention. Transplanted to the garden of the gods of Rome and made Penates painstakingly cultivate a palm that was born outside his home in the interstices of the stones. On the island of Capri that he thought he noticed an old oak tree whose branches fell fainting to the ground, had revived his arrival, and both rejoiced why, instead of Capri, Enaria ceded to the Republic of Naples. He also had special superstitions on certain days, never, for example, he set out on the day following the markets, or beginning any important business on the day of Nones, and this to avoid, so Tiberius wrote to the evil influence of omens attached to his name.

XCIII. With respect to foreign ceremonies, the ancient and respected the time-honored and laws, so despised each other. It had become initiated into the mysteries of Athens, and later, led by priests of the former Ceres, before his court in Rome, a case concerning their privileges and they had to reveal the secret things, brought out all his advisers and the public, and judged on its own the matter in the presence of interested parties. However, Egypt does not deviate even slightly worthy of the road to see the bull Apis, and highly commended his grandson Gaius for not crossing practiced in Jerusalem Judea any religious act.

XCIV. Since we are concerned in this matter will now omens that preceded, accompanied or followed his birth, and that seemed to announce his future greatness and its permanent happiness. In ancient time had been struck by lightning on the walls of Vélitres, and the oracle had declared that a citizen of the city someday come to possess the sovereign power. With this confidence, the people of Vélitres then launched fierce war against the Romans, who reproduced many times and threatened to be the cause of his ruin. Until a long time did not understand, and this for the event, that this omen was the power of Augustus. Refer Marato July that a few months before his birth, happened at Rome a prodigy who witnessed all its inhabitants and that meant that Nature was preparing a king for the Roman people. The Senate banned scared to raise children born in the year, but those whose wives were pregnant, expecting each prediction I helped him, managed to prevent the senate to carry files. Mendetos Asclepiades Leo, in his treatises on the divine, that Ada, the mother of Augustus, had come at midnight to the temple of Apollo for a solemn sacrifice, falling asleep in his bunk as he went the other women said they still slipped beside a snake, retiring shortly after, that waking, was purified as if out of the arms of her husband, and from that moment it was always in the body image of a serpent, an image that could never erase, so it would not ever appear in public restrooms, Augustus was born ten months later, and therefore passed by the son of Apollo. Ada also dreamed before giving birth, your bowels ascended to the stars and covering the entire length of the earth and the heavens. Also Octavian Augustus's father dreamed that a ray of sunshine out of the womb of his wife. The day he was born, deliberated in the Senate regarding the conspiracy of Catiline, and having arrived late Octavio because the birth of his wife, is well known that P. Nigidius, aware of the cause of the delay and the time of delivery, said he was born a master of the universe. Later, wearing an army Octavio more secluded part of Thrace, halted in a grove sacred to Bacchus, there consulted the god about the destiny of his son, with all private ceremonies of the barbarians, the priests preaching same things, because, after the libations of wine made on the altar of God, raising the flame to the top of the temple and from thence to heaven, miracle which only happened until then to Alexander the Great when sacrificed on the same altars. From the next night seemed to see his son Octavio bigger than they are mortals, armed with the thunderbolt and scepter, covered with the insignia of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, crowned with rays, and laurels sitting in a chariot drawn by twelve horses of dazzling whiteness. The reports of C. Drusus read that having the mother of Augustus placed the child at night in his crib in a room on the ground floor, did not find him the next morning, and that after having been looking for a long time, finally find him in the most top of a tower, and his face turned toward the rising sun. Just started talking, when pestering the croaking of frogs in the house of his grandfather, he commanded silence, and is said not to sing ever since. One day he was eating in a forest located just four miles from Rome, in the way of Campania, an eagle snatched the bread out of sight remontóse, and then dropped it back gently. Q. After Catullus dedicated the Capitol, Augustus had for two nights, the next dreams. The first saw a group of children playing around the altar of Jupiter, who took one of them, putting the statue on the chest of the Republic in his hand. He saw in the second to the same child seated on the knees of Jupiter Capitoline, wanted him out of there, but opposed the god, saying he educated for the support of the Republic. The next morning found Catullus to Augustus, who had never seen, and I call attention to its resemblance to the boy he saw in his dreams. Other related, but differently according to the dream of Catullus these, several children asked for a guardian to Jupiter, the god whom they designated one should entrust all their demands; play with his hand after the small lips, and immediately of his mouth. M. Cicero, accompanying C. Caesar to the Capitol, referring to his friends that he had a dream the night before had seen him, she explained, a distinguished child face down from the sky at the end of a gold chain, and stop before the doors of the Capitol where, in the hands of Jupiter, was a whip, then suddenly seeing Augustus, still unknown to most of them, whom Caesar had brought for sacrifice, said that this was the child whose face he saw in his sleep. The day that Augustus wore the manly toga, he ripped his lacticlavia both sides, and fell to the feet, some people concluded from this that one day you would be subject to the order of the costume was distinctive. When Caesar, near Munda, chose the spot of his camp, he cut a forest where they found a palm tree, which commanded respect as a harbinger of victory palm seedlings sprouted to the point that not only quickly equalized the stem, but they covered him completely, pigeons nesting in them, birds fleeing the rough and tough leaves of this tree. It is said that this prodigy was one of the main reasons that Caesar determined to not want another successor to the grandson of her sister. During his stay at Apollonia, Augustus raised Agrippa Theagenes observatory of the astrologer, he consulted by Agrippa, he first predicted a series of prosperity so great, so great, that Augustus would not say the day nor the peculiarities of his birth, dreading having to be ashamed before him for the prediction of a less brilliant destination. Defeated at last by the prayers of the astrologer, he declared them, and Theagenes, rising at once, he excitedly like a god. Augustus immediately gained such confidence in his destiny, which published a horoscope and did coin a silver medal with the effigy of Capricorn constellation under which he was born.

XCV. Shortly after the assassination of Caesar, when he entered Rome, back to Apollonia, being the clear sky was suddenly appear in it a circle, similar to rainbow around the sun disk, and soon after fell a thunderbolt the monument raised to Julia, daughter of the dictator. One day, he consulted the oracles, during his first consulate, appeared at his saw twelve vultures, as he once appeared to Romulus, and his sacrifice for his eyes were opened to the livers of all victims, have revealed to the last fiber, which, as stated all arúspides was great omen for him and happy destinations.

XCVI. Also took victory in all wars. Near Bologna, where they had assembled the troops of the triumvirate, an eagle perched on his tent, hurled two crows that the importuning, and toppled to the ground. The whole army was in that struggle the harbinger of discord that one day had to divide the three chiefs and even the outcome of the struggle. Before the battle of Philippi, a Thessalian announced the victory of J. Caesar, whose image it said had appeared in a lost way. One day he sacrificed under the walls of Perugia and not being satisfied with the sacrifice, he sent for new victims, being in it, the enemies, in a sudden attack, took away all the preparations, and arúspides stated that announced the dangers and setbacks to befall sacrificer those who had taken over the entrails of the victims, the subsequent events confirmed the prediction. On the eve of a naval battle fought in Sicily, while walking along the beach, jumped a fish of the sea, coming to fall at his feet. As soon as it was directed towards its fleet to take position before the battle of Actium, he found a colt with his driver, he was named Eutychus, meaning Blessed, and the donkey Nicon, or Victor. Later in the temple that was erected at the site of his camp, he dedicated a statue in bronze.

XCVII. Certis Omens also announced his death, which I will discuss shortly, and his apotheosis. When I closed the five years in the Campus Martius, before a vast multitude, an eagle flew repeatedly around him, He went after the pediment of a temple near where he was engraved the name of AGRIS and landed on the first letter. Under this omen, Augustus ordered Tiberius, a colleague, that would make the votes used for the next five years, although he had already prepared and written in his tablets, not wanting to deliver votes that had not seen made. Around the same time, a ray erased the first letter of his name from the inscription of one of his statues. Asked it the Oracle, he said he would not live more than a hundred days, number dialed by the letter C, that would be placed among the gods, because Aesar, ie what was left of his name means god in Etruscan language. Tiberius had given a command in Illyria, and wanted to accompany him to Benevento, but constantly delayed by the causes that led to his court, said (and these words were also considered omen) that nothing could stop him going more in Rome. He set out, reached Astura, and building a fair wind there, he embarked on his usual night, starting his last illness by diarrhea.

XCVIII. He walked the shores of Campania and wings neighbors, and spent four days in Capri resting and excellent mood. Sailing near Puzzola Bay, where passengers and crew of a ship of Alexandria which was in harbor, went to greet him dressed in white robes and crowns tight, burning incense before him, heaped praise him, and his wishes for its prosperity , exclaimed that he lived, and that he had the freedom of navigation and all his possessions. So glad you put these acclamations, who ordered distributed to all of his entourage forty gold pieces, and made them promise under oath that would use the money to buy goods in Alexandria. In the days that followed also distributed, and other small gifts Greek Roman togas and cloaks, making dressing the Greeks the Roman dress, and the Romans, Greek, a change that extended into the language. During the days he spent in Capri extremely pleased to see the exercises in a group of young Greek ruins of the ancient institution. He did serve his food in his presence, and gave them permission to order and delivered to all the liberties of his crazy old bag and enter the fruit, desserts and even the money that they brought on their behalf. There was, well, kind of distraction that does not deliver on that trip. Because of the happy lives of those in his party in the neighboring island of Capri, gave the Greek name of place of idleness. One such MASG, who had loved and who, joke, often called the founder of the island, had died the previous year, and the inhabitants of the country, all with lighted torches, the group visited his grave. Seeing one day from his desk, he improvised the Greek verse:

"I see the founder's tomb on fire."

and turning Trasillo, companion of Tiberius, who knew what it was, asked him what was that verse poet. One hesitated to answer, and then Augustus added the following:

"Do you not see a MASG surrounded by torches?"

and repeated the question, responding at last questioned that whatever the author, the poems were excellent; Augustus burst into laughter and joked for a long time. Then he went to Naples, continuing more or less tormented by stomach pains. Assisted in this city and five-year gymnastic games established in his honor, and he accompanied Tiberius to the place of destination. But in return, feeling worse, was stopped at Nola, he returned to Tiberius, had with him a secret conversation that lasted a long time, and no longer occupied more serious matters.

XCIX. The day of his death repeatedly asked if their state produced some commotion outside and asked for a mirror and arranged her hair to disguise the emaciation of his face. When they entered their friends, said: "I think I represented well this farce of life? He added the sentence in Greek comedies ending:

"If you like it, clap your hands and applaud the author."

Ordered to retire after all, asked about the disease still the daughter of Drusus some who came from Rome, and died suddenly in the arms of Livia, saying Livia v recalls living our mission farewell. His death was quiet and as always had wished for when she heard that one had died quickly and painlessly, exposed the extent his death wish him and all his family in this way, as expounded by the Greek word for shouting , and assaulted by sudden fear, dragged him forty young, however, was more evidence of weakness omen that reason, since Praetorian forty soldiers took his body to the spot where he explained.

C. He died in the same room as his father Octavius, under the consulship of Sextus Pompeius and Sextus Apuleius, 14 Kalends of September in the ninth hour of the day (63), at seventy-six years younger thirty-five days . They moved his body from Nola to Bobila, bringing the Ten municipalities and colonies and traveling by night because of the station. In Bobila was delivered to the knights, who took him to Rome, depositing it in the vestibule of his house. The Senate wanted to honor his memory by celebrating his funeral with pomp extraordinary number of proposals they presented to the subject: some wanted the cortege passed through the arch of triumph, preceded by a statue of Victory which is in the Senate, and the young nobles of both sexes singing dirges, others that day of the funeral will carry iron rings instead of gold rings, suggesting some to take charge of collecting his bones to the priests of the colleges. One also suggested that was moved in August to September, the name of Augustus, because he was born in the last and died in the first, another that the time from birth to death is called the Augustan age and with this name was known in the annals. They began, however, limits to such propositions. On his remains were delivered two funeral eulogies, one by Tiberius, before the temple of J. Caesar, and another by Drusus, son of Tiberius, near the old rostrum of the speeches, was carried on the shoulders of the Senators to the Campus Martius, where he was placed on the pyre. A former praetor said there had seen rising from the flames into the sky the image of Augustus. The most distinguished of the equestrian order, barefoot and wearing simple robes, gathered his ashes, deposited in the mausoleum which he had built during his sixth consulship between the Tiber and the Via Flaminia, speak to him surrounded by forest, being since then become public park .

CI. Augustus had made his will under the consulate of L. Plauco and C. Silius, 3 of the Nones of April, one year and four months before his death, he added two codicils, written partly in his own hand and partly by his freedmen Polybius and Hilarion. This will, deposited in the College of Vestal, was shown the same in three volumes with identical labels. Opened in the Senate and was read out. Instituted by principal heirs Tiberius and Livia, the first half plus one sixth and one in third, providing that bore his name. Without these, called the succession to Drusus, son of Tiberius, in third, and Germanicus and his three children in the sixth. Finally, third heir to a considerable number of relatives and friends. Bequeathed to the Roman people forty million sesterces, to each soldier of the praetorian guard, a thousand sesterces; to urban cohorts, and legions hundred, three hundred. These amounts should be paid at once, something not difficult, since they were booked in the Imperial Treasury. Also made other bequests, some of which were as high as two million sesterces, pointing to a year to pay, giving the excuse the modesty of his fortune, for he declared that his heirs would not get the succession more than a hundred million sesterces ( 64) although in the last twenty years of his life his friends had left by four billion will, by having everyone in the state employee and his two paternal estates and other family heirloom. He named only two Julias. her daughter and granddaughter to bar buried with him in the same grave. Of the three statements that will have left by four billion, to funerals, another a summary of his life, which was recorded on brass plates in front of his mausoleum, and the third was a statement of the status of the whole empire, with respect to the soldiers he had under the banners of money in the treasury of the emperor, in state coffers, and taxes or taxes still owed. Care must add the name of the freedmen and slaves who could be called accounts.

Notes

(41) For example, decenvirato and the councilor, called by the Roman magisterium; the word magistratus has highest significance.
(42) September 23
(43) land them on in newborn Ops invoking him favorably received, we called this goddess Levana because this ceremony presided pueris levandis of misses.
(44) When I raise Rome moved by pomp omens.
(45) and simultaneously raise means to remove.
(46) This will had been deposited by Antonio in the college of vestal virgins. According to Dio the existence of this document had been disclosed to Augustus by Titius and Glaucus, who had appeared as witnesses.
(47) Old Pueblo Africa, enjoyed great fame, it was believed that their bodies had the power to kill snakes, numbed with only its smell. When they had a son, to ensure that their wives had no trade with strangers, the newborn had a snake, if not in flight, the child was legitimate.
(48) From the Latin word vallum, trench, wall.
(49) Turip, panici, v. 612.
(50) The Senate decree power tribune in 724, after the defeat of Antony, did not take, however, hold up 731, it retained thirty-six years and some months, ie until his death in 767.
(51) These functions will be granted first by five years at 735, then at 742, for another five years. Perhaps because Suetonius the perpetual flame is always renewed.
(52) From the name of Augustus was derived by corruption, our August.
(53) provided a sort of conscription among girls from six to ten years which had entered the priesthood, the raging of his sisters, was also waived for the daughters of quindecenviros, the flamines and salianos .
(54) The law provides that Pompeii who had committed or attempted parricide, if he confessed, was bloodied beaten with rods, and then sewn into a sack with a dog, a cat, a snake and a monkey and thrown into the sea.
(55) were called Orcini, or freedom of Orcus, Pluto, which were by the will of their owners, so it seemed they were given freedom from the depths of the underworld. For the same reason it was called the Senators Orcini issue here. Caesar, according to Antonio, he had appointed in his Memoirs, and needed to respect your wishes.
(56) These judges were appointed to examine the state of the temples and public buildings, and be vigilant that they are repaired.
(57) The jurisdiction of these judges was very extensive, it covered judicial powers and the police, judged for example, the difficulties between masters and slaves, lacking the tutors, fraud of the bankers: repressed unlawful associations; watching shows, etc.
(58) These decorations were a laurel wreath triumphant mantle, scepter, a statue, cough thanksgiving to gods, the title of imperator, everything, in short, except the solemn march and truck of the winner.
(59) The dating manumissions citizenship rights, but exerted only in the four urban tribes, who were the least important. Aelia Leutia law imposes a restriction that says here is that Suetonius. There was yet another limitation to those who had been freed with less solemnity, which only acquired the rights of Latinos.
(60) Distributions in cash or extraordinary genres.
(61) torg, necklace.
(62) Iliad, III, 4.
(62bis) Do not you see that dude governs your disk with your finger? The allusion is to the double meaning of the word orbis, meaning both the circle (here the tambourine? And the universe.
(623) Since this meeting was hired sacrilegious choirmaster, and Malia saw six gods and six goddesses when Caesar, in his wickedness, dared to parody Phoebus, when renewing time entertaining the adulteries of the gods. Then all the gods moved away from the earth and Jupiter himself fled away from his golden throne.
(624) My father was a forex trader, I sell glasses.
(625) Lost at sea their boyfriends because of two storms was saved the day and night playing dice.
(63) August 19 to half past three o'clock.
(64) Something more than twenty-nine million pesetas gold.

Octavian Augustus (Second part)

The Twelve Caesars
Gaius Suetonius

Part biography of Octavian Augustus

XXXIII. He administered justice itself frequently, and sometimes even at night. When he was ill judged from a litter placed before the court, or at home and in bed. Not only great care applied to the trial of causes, but also adds sweetness displayed. Wanting to release a defendant convicted of parricide the honor of being sewn into a leather bag (54), which applied torture to which he pleaded guilty, he suggested, they say, the prosecution in these terms: Is not it true that you have not killed your father? In a testament false accusation, which were complicated by virtue of the law Cornelia everyone who had armed themselves, circulated to the judges, in addition to two regular tablets of condemnation and acquittal, one in which he forgave those whose signature has been obtained by mistake or fraud. Every year were delivered by him to the prefect of Rome appeals by litigants residing in the city, the inhabitants of the provinces were given to each of the men responsible consular especially foreign affairs.

XXXIV. Review all laws and restored an absolute number of them, as there were sumptuary and against adultery, immorality, intrigue and celibacy. Regarding the latter, which was even more severe than the others, the violence of the protests that prevented him from keeping it raised and forced to remove or soften some of the sentences, to grant a period of three years and to increase the rewards . Although reformed the law in this way, the Knights called loudly for its abolition in full spectacle Augustus, then, calling the sons of Germanicus, who came, some on their arms and the other to his father, and show the people urged to look at attitude and not afraid to imitate the example of the young prince. Realizing later that mocked the provisions of the law, choosing brides who could not marry in a long time and often changing wives, restricted the duration of the engagement and limited the freedom of divorce.

XXXV. The excessive number of senators had made this body a strange and confusing amalgam, having, in effect, over a thousand, of which some were completely unworthy of this range, which had been high after the death of Caesar, please or money, and whom the people called Orcino (55). Augustus, through two elections, returned to this body proportions and primitive splendor. The first choice was left to the discretion of the same senators, of which each had to choose another, the second was made by Agrippa. When the new Senate presided, wearing, say, a breastplate under his robe and a sword at his side, ten Senators robust, his friends, around his seat. Refer Cordo Cremucio that at this time, only admitted to his presence senators one by one and after being registered. Augusto forcing some to resign, and authorized the insignia of his dignity to those who submitted to his desire, as well as its position in the orchestra and in the solemn feasts offered to the gods. As newly elected senators or preserved, arranged so that their duties they seem both more sacred and less painful, which, before settling, would make each a libation of wine and incense to the divinity of the temple where sit, it also ordered that the Senate would hold no more than two meetings per month, on the Kalends and the Ides, and that in the months of September and October would be required to attend any sessions, except those designated by lot to form the legal number. He created for himself a Council, which was renewed every six months by lot, with the deliberate about business to be presented to the full Senate. In important cases did not reflect the votes according to the established order, but according to your taste, so that each senator had to be willing to give views instead of simply following the other.

XXXVI. He still had many other innovations, including prohibiting the publication of the proceedings of the Senate and sent to provincial judges whose functions just had just completed. He wanted to proconsuls assigned fixed compensation for transportation and room expenses previously awarded in competitive bidding. He retired from the city Quaestors custody of the Treasury, entrusting it to the magistrates and citizens who had been. Decemvirs charged the court calls centunviros, functions previously entrusted to those who had received the dignity quaestorship do.

XXXVII. In order to involve more citizens in the administration of the Republic, created new jobs, the monitoring of public works (56), roads, aqueducts, the bed of the Tiber, the distribution of wheat to the people; organized a prefecture in Rome (57), a triumvirate for the election of senators and another to interview the gentlemen who had long since ceased to choose, and increased the number of magistrates. He also asked that when he became consul, was to give him two colleagues instead of one, which failed, having already lowered all its majesty too honored to share with another that he could enjoy himself.

XXXVIII. Generously rewarded the military merit, was given the honors of victory more than thirty generals, and the triumphal insignia still a larger number (58). To quickly get used to the children of the senators in the management of public affairs, allowing them to take the lacticlavia while the manly toga, and attend the Senate since that time. After some time of military service the tribune of the legion, and even cavalry corps commanders, so that no one was alien to life in the camps, distributed between two senators often command a wing of the army. He made frequent men's magazines, restoring the use, since well abolished, its solemn procession. It also prohibited that any accuser forced to get to any of his horse, as was formerly in the midst of this ceremony. A mutilated elderly authorized to send his horse in his place, and stand to answer whether the quoted foot, granted, finally, to the gentlemen over thirty-five years, please return the horse if they did not keep it.

XXXIX. Having asked the Senate ten colleagues, made all the knights give strict account for their conduct, those who were found wanting, were punished with different penalties, and some with a note of infamy, several of them escaped with more or less severe repression, consisting of the lightest in tablets that should deliver on the spot and read quietly, some were punished for lending money with interest, after having succeeded to such an object to a very low interest.

XL. When the ballot for the election of tribunes there was insufficient number of candidates for senators, chosen from among the Roman knights, taking them right, upon expiration of their office, to remain in the order they chose. Like many gentlemen, ruined by civil wars, dared not sit on public games on the benches reserved for this order, for fear of incurring penalties theater, said that was enough to get rid of these have appeared in person at the equestrian order, or have relatives that are listed therein. Established the census of the people for quarters, and deliveries of wheat to not deviate too often commoners of their occupations, he delivered three times a year bonds for four months, seeing, however, who missed the old use of monthly distributions, it reinstated. It established the old regulations relating to elections and imposed penalties multiplied with coercion. On election day, the tribes Fabia Scaptia of which was a member, he did so distribute thousand sesterces per head, so they had nothing to ask any candidate. Granted very great importance to preserve the Roman people pure from any mixture of foreign or servile blood, granted only the right of citizenship with extraordinary reserves, and restricted the power of manumission. A Tiberio, asking the right for a Greek client of his, wrote that he would grant it if he had not come to prove the justice of their request. Livia, who requested the same for a tributary Gaul, was refused, offering to free his protégé of the charge, preferring to remove as I said something to the Treasury, to prostitute the dignity of a Roman citizen. Not content with having raised many obstacles between slavery and the simple freedom, with more still to be opposite manumissions legitimate, whose number, position and fix took care of differences, but also prohibited the slave who had taken or suffered chains the torture could never, and in any manner whatsoever, to obtain the rights of citizenship (59). He also intends to restore the ancient Roman costume itself, seeing a day in a town meeting many dark cloaks, angrily exclaimed: "Behold, Romans, these conquerors of the world and those winners with toga and entrusted the Velasco councilors that for anyone, hereafter filed in the Forum or Circus without the cloak and Roman toga.

XLI. On many occasions presented the testimony given in all orders of his generosity. Brought to Rome by order of his royal treasury of Alexandria, shed such an abundance of cash, which immediately lowered the interest of money and raised the price of land, and later, when the Treasury was increased with the seizure of assets of the condemned, provided pro bono, and for a specified period, which could account for twice as much. He raised the census required for senators of eight hundred thousand sesterces to one million two hundred thousand, supplementing, but those who do not possess. Frequently congiarios gave the people (60), but need not always equal the amount, were sometimes four sesterces per person, others three hundred, and only a few hundred or fifty. Of these donations did not exclude children or infants, although it was customary not to include them until the age of eleven. In times of scarcity it was also distributed rations of wheat, often at very low cost, and duplicate while the distribution of money.

XLII. This shows, however, sought only by this means the welfare of the people and not their favor, is that one day having raised complaints about the high price of wine, he suppressed the cries and said indignantly that by introducing his son Agrippa many aqueducts, had served enough that no one had sed. Another day, the people having recalled the promise he had made a congiario replied that they should trust his word, but as another opportunity to claim the crowd something he had not promised, censure by his baseness and shamelessness edict stating that would give nothing, but had had prior intent. He showed no less firm when, looking after the announcement of a congiario that a large number of freed slaves had become free registration among citizens, refused to accept a distribution that is not promised, giving to others less than they had promised, so that the amount could be sufficient for that purpose. obligóle an extraordinary shortage at one time, Rome's take all the slaves for sale, all the gladiators, all foreigners, except doctors and teachers, and even part of the slaves in service. When he finally became abundant, conceived, as he himself confesses, the bold intention to abolish forever the distributions of wheat, because the hope of such distributions made to neglect the cultivation of land. He gave up his idea, convinced that his successor would not return this application with a view, ambitious, but since then moderated the excess, while reconciling the interests of the people with the growers and traders.

XLIII. Surpassed all who preceded him into the number, variety and magnificence of the shows. According to his testimony, he gave games four times in his behalf, and twenty justices absent or were not able to afford the cost. It was not unusual performances give different neighborhoods at once, in different theaters, and that would represent actors of all countries. Their games were held not only in the Forum and in the Amphitheater, but in the Circus and in the septa, sometimes merely of fierce fighting. Athletes also fought in the field of Mars, which were surrounded by bleachers for the show, gave a naval battle near the Tiber, in a place designed for such purpose, and where now stands the sacred groves of the Caesars. In those days tended to establish guards in the city, which was uninhabited solitude exposing the attempts of the outlaws. He also made a circus act in the charioteers, runners, hunters who did not have to do more than finish off the pieces, and sometimes these papers chose to represent young people of the leading families. He liked, above all, to see Trojans host the Games most distinguished youth of Rome, judging it beautiful and worthy of ancient times to help her show early on his enlightened race. A C. Asprenas Vernier, wounded by falling into one of these fights, gave him a gold necklace and autorizóle, and their descendants, to carry the name of Torquato (61). As a result of bitter complaints and insidious in the Senate gave Sen. Asinius Pollio, whose nephew Esernio had broken a leg, he concluded, however, by removing such games. Sometimes also made Roman knights out in theatrical games and gladiatorial combat, but this was before the ban was imposed by a Senate-consulted. Since then no longer forced to stand for anyone who has distinguished birth, except the young Lucius, who did only exhibit at less to have two feet tall, could not even seventeen pounds and had very strong voice. Wishing on a day to show the hostages to show the people of first births that were sent to Rome, made them cross the sand and placed under it in the second bank. Although there were day representation if Rome had brought something that had not been seen yet and it was worth seeing, then show it to people in all parts of the city in this way showed a rhinoceros in the field of Mars, a tiger on stage, and a snake of fifty cubits in the polls. Having felt sick one day votive games were held in the amphitheater, followed by lying in his bunk, next to the cars that drove to the gods. Another day for the games that accompanied the dedication of the theater of Marcellus, fell back, for having broken the suspension of your chair seat, and during a performance that gave his grandchildren, unable to contain or by any means to calm the people, he feared the collapse of the Amphitheater, left his post and went to sit on the site believed to be most threatened.

XLIV. There was great confusion among the spectators, who sat indifferently everywhere, but corrected this abuse, prompted by an injury received in a few games Puzzula busy, a senator who no one wanted to leave the theater filled seat found, command, then by decree of the Senate, which provided that should give public performances, the first row of seats shall be reserved for senators. Rome forbade the ambassadors of free nations or allies to sit in the orchestra, it warned that many of them were freed breed. Separate the people of the soldier, and said special seats for commoners married, those who still wore the excuse, said certain steps, which were beside themselves to their teachers, and forbidden entry to those who were badly dressed. With respect to women, who were previously confused with the audience, decided that they had separate seats, and only attended the gladiatorial combat in the stands sitting higher. He pointed to the vestal virgins in the theater special place near the rostrum of the Praetor. Banned, finally, to all women's shows athletes well, during the games that gave as Pontifex Maximus, having asked the people a boxing match, it postponed to the next morning, very early, and held, under its authority did not want women to be the theater before the fifth hour.

XLV. As for himself, witnessed the games of the Circus from the house of a friend or a freedman of his, and sometimes from a bed, similar to the gods, who sat with his wife and children. No wonder the show was absent for many hours and even days, in which case asking permission, appointing one to preside in his place. But when I attended was very attentive. Whether to avoid the whispers that reminded the people had often warned his father Caesar, who was busy reading through the letters show or memorials and answer them, whether it's because, in fact, exceedingly likes such representations, more than once as he frankly. So he was often giving their money to large crown and rewards in games and events not offered by him, and never attended the Greek struggle without reward each participant with a prize given to merit. He felt a certain passion for boxing, especially among Latinos, among them not only liked to watch professional athletes, exercised to fight with the Greeks, but also without rules and without struggling art space in the narrow alleys. Without exception, all those who devoted their public entertainment industry, seemed worthy of their care. He maintained the privileges of the athletes and ended up increasing them, forbade that they should do the gladiators fight to death, confined to the campus theater games and the coercive authority of an ancient law that gave judges on the players, at all times and place, which did not prevent very strict rules refer to the struggles of athletes and combat of gladiators. Suppressed the license of buffoons, to whip up into three theaters and then banish Estefanión actor for agreeing to serve by a woman wearing hair-free status as slaves cut, the jester Hylas, by complaints from the praetor, he commanded whip in the vestibule of his palace, where everyone could see it, and echo of Rome and Italy in the comic Pylades, for pointing the finger, showing the public, he whistled a spectator.

XLVI. After fixing things in Rome thus settled in Italy with twenty-eight new colonies and contributed in many ways its glory through jobs and revenues, the same in some ways made to Rome in rights and dignity, because it established a kind of vote that the Council of Ten of the colonies were in charge of collecting in each of them for the election of judges of the capital, and they sent closed for days of the election. To encourage all parties to honor the families and the spread, admitted in the order of knights whose request had been recommended by their city, and if they were of sections rewarded plebeians who had children of both sex, with a thousand sesterces each.

XLVII. Personally took charge of the administration of the most important provinces, not to seem easy and secure delivery to the authority of annual magistrates, let the other proconsuls be distributed by lot, sometimes, however, made changes and most frequently visited of these provinces, or not belong to his department. Deprived of their freedom to some allied cities, which threatened to ruin the license; relief to which they were overwhelmed; build again destroyed by earthquakes, and granted the privileges of Latium or the rights of the city, some by the merit of their services had been contracted before the Roman people. Except for Africa and Sardinia, there was, in my opinion, part of the Empire that did not visit, he prepared to do to these provinces after his victory over Sextus Pompey in Sicily, but was prevented from doing so by violent and continuous storms, not then taking the occasion or reason to visit.

XLVIII. As to the realms of war right passed to his power, restored almost all the same people whom they had been robbed, or was present for them to foreigners. Joined among them by blood, to the allied kings of Rome, showing frequent tireless negotiator and protector of all marriages of family or friendship between the kings, which considered and treated as members and component parts of the Empire of so much that he gave guardians for minor children or insane of them until adulthood or until healing, and he also educate and instruct their own children to many of these kings.

XLIX. As far as the army, he distributed the legions and auxiliary troops by provinces Misena organized a fleet and one in Ravenna with the task of monitoring the two seas. Rome remained a number of chosen troops to the security of the town and to his, because he had licensed the body of calagurritano, with whom he had formed his guard up his victory over Antony, and the Germans, who later served until the defeat of Varus. However, it had never agreed in Rome over three cohorts, and those without camping, the other left in the winter barracks near the neighboring cities. Established an invariable rule for pay and rewards to the soldiers, wherever they were, and determined for each grade and length of service awards attached to the license, for fear that the necessity of becoming, after early retirement in instruments of sedition. In order to readily provide the ongoing costs of this maintenance and of pensions, established a military background with the products of new taxes. It had also in all the military roads and short distances, young post office, and cars then, to be informed quickly of what happens in the provinces, in addition to the advantage provided by this measure, now has the power, when circumstances require, receive prompt further by carrying letters back and forth of the Empire.

L. The stamp imprinted on the public acts, instructions and letters was first a sphinx, then the head of Alexander the Great, and ultimately his own likeness, recorded by Dioscorides, using this stamp princes his successors. In his letters always stated that when he wrote them, whether by day or night.

LI. He bright and numerous tests of his mercy and kindness. I will not name all his opponents who gave life and grace to let get to the first dignities of the State, shall quote only two commoners June Novato and Cassius of Padua, who punished the one with a simple fine and the other with short exile, although the former had written against him and released under the name of young Agrippa violent letter, and the second had exclaimed in full banquet to kill him or did not lack desire or value. One such Emilio Aelian, Cordoba, appeared before the court, among other crimes and accusing him of speaking ill of the Emperor Augustus turned to the accuser and said with emotion: I wish you could prove what you say the accused, because then it would demonstrate to Aelian that I also have language, and say more about him than he has said about me. And then or later again took on the issue. Having been complaining about this restraint, Tiberius, in a letter, with great bitterness, he replied: Do not be misled, my dear Tiberius, the vividness of your age, and not angered too if you speak ill of me. Much is unable to do anything to us.

LII. I knew that, ordinarily, temples were dedicated to the proconsul, but not accepted in any province, unless it were the name of Rome and his own. Always rejected the honor of having them in this city and even ordered all statues melt silver had been erected at one time, with the money she got gold tripods dedicated to Apollo Palatino. Offered him the people's dictatorship with large organizations, but rejected placing a knee on the ground, getting off the robe and showing his bare chest.

LIII. He always had the title of lord horror, behave as if reproach or injury. One day I was in the theater, and having such an actor: Oh, sir kind and righteous!, All spectators, applying these words, applauded with enthusiasm quickly caught with the hand and eyes the low flattery, and in the morning following published a severe edict censoring. It also allowed their children and grandchildren will never give him the name, no seriously or in jest, forbidding also including this kind of flattery. I tried not to get into Rome or in any other city, or leave them, but in the afternoon or evening, not to bother anyone with empty ceremonies. As consul would ordinarily walk, when he was not carrying a litter became uncovered. The days of receipt admitted to the common people, and received with the greatest affability requests put to him, one day reproved one who shook gaily to give a memorial, saying he used so carefully as to present a coin to a elephant. The days of sitting in the Senate did not greet the senators but in their living room to sit, naming each one and no one helped her memory, and took leave of them leave the same way. He kept many regular citizens favors trade, not stopped going to their family parties to old age, after being very upset one day the crowd at a betrothal party. Sen. Gallus Tirrino, with whom he was joined any close friendship, having suddenly gone blind, he wanted to die of hunger was he to see him, comforted him and he reconciled with life.

LIV. One day, while speaking in the Senate, interrupted him, one saying I did not understand, and another: I would contest if he were released. Happen abruptly leaving the room, exasperated by the endless violent incidents that were promoted. and was told a few: The Senators have the right to discuss public affairs. Using Antiscio Labon the right to elect a senator at the time the Senate was reformed, elected Triumvir Lepidus, Augustus enemy once and exiled at the time, asking if he knew the others more worthy, he replied that each had his opinion. But this boldness, not hurt either.

LV. The pamphlets that were handed offensive against the Senate failed to arouse in him any care or desire to refute them, not even sought to authors, content to have to be pursued hereafter to be published under a name borrowed verses defamatory libel against either. Seeing the object of many bitter and insolent mockery, replied to them by an edict, which was always opposing take any steps to curb the license of language in the wills.

LVI. Always attending to the polls for the election of judges, the tribes ran their candidates, asking them to vote in the usual way and then he voted in his position as an ordinary citizen. Witnessing in justice, it was left to question and contradict with the utmost patience. He built a much smaller forum than I wanted, not to force the owners of the neighboring houses and destroyed. Not recommended for their children without adding people, if they deserve it. One day he was deeply troubled because upon entering the theater all the spectators rose and applauded, but still carried the pretext. He wanted his friends enjoyed power in the state, but who lived under the same laws as others and enforceable by the courts. Having been accused of poisoning Asprenas Nonius, intimate friend, by Cassius Severus, Augustus consulted the Senate about what to do on this occasion, fearing that he said to accompany him to court could be interpreted as his desire to wrest the culprit to the condemnation of laws, or failure to do so meant giving up the friend and ordered before the judges. It was apparently unanimous Senate to sit for several hours at the bank of the defenders, but was silent and even refrained from so-called judicial praise. Always attended to their customers, for example, such a sit down, his former soldier, haunted by injuries. The only defendant who wrested the rule of law was Castricio, whom learned of the conspiracy of Nureña, and even this did begging the accuser before the judges a waiver was granted.

LVII. It is easy to understand how long it would want with such behavior. Not speak of the Senate "consultations given in his favor, and that could be attributed to fear or flattery. But by choice, all Roman knights celebrated each year for two days, the anniversary of his birth. All orders of the state, in compliance with a solemn vow, thrown annually into the lake of Curtius silver coins for his health when he was absent, engaged him, on the Kalends of January, gifts in the Capitol, with the amount bought precious statues gods that was placed in the various districts of the city, like the Apollo Sandalitario the Jupiter Tragediano and others. When a fire destroyed their house on the Palatine Hill, veterans, decurias, tribes and many individuals contributed voluntarily, and each according to his abilities, to rebuild, but scarcely dared to touch those heaps of wealth, and nobody accepted more than money. When returning from any province, went to meet his wishes for happiness and singing verses in his praise. They sought their input in Rome do not coincide with any executions.

LVIII. The title of Father of the Nation was conferred by unanimous consent unexpected: first by the people, whereupon he sent a deputation to Antium, despite his refusal, he was given a second time in Rome, going to their meeting, with branches of laurel in his hand, a day that went to the theater, then in the Senate, not by decree or acclamation, but voice Massala Valerio, who said on behalf of his colleagues: We wish, Caesar Augustus, which can contribute to your happiness and your family, which is like the eternal desire for happiness and prosperity of the Republic Senate, which, according to the Roman people, greets you, FATHER OF THE NATION. Augustus, with tears in his eyes, replied in these terms, which mean literally like those Massala: Arrived at the height of my desires, conscript fathers, what can you ask for and to the immortal gods, but last until the end of my life the agreement of your feelings for me?.

LIX. For subscriptions was raised a statue near that of Aesculapius, his physician Antonius Musa, who had cured of a dangerous condition. Many parents imposed their heirs in the will on Capitol Hill that would provide a solemn sacrifice, the motive of which, announced publicly. would give thanks to heaven in his name, for having preserved HEALTH AUGUSTO. Some Italian cities began to count the year by the day when he first visited. Most provinces in addition to temples and shrines, founded in honor of her quinquennial games in almost every city.

LX. Kings friends and allies of Rome was founded, each in his own kingdom, cities named Cesare, and decided together to end a common expense of Olympian Zeus Temple, begun since ancient Athens, to spend the genius of Augustus. They often left their states to go to him, not only in Rome but also in the provinces I visited, then watched them greet each day, stripped of their regalia and wearing the Roman toga, as mere customers.

LXI. Now that I've shown and was in command and the magistracy, the head of armies, the government of the Republic and the world, in war and peace, I will refer to his private life and private, say what were, from his youth until his last days, his habits, his touch with his family, his fate in his family. He lost his mother during his first consulship and his sister Octavia, when he was fifty-four years, in life was to them all the attention and tributóles great honor after his death.

LXII. As a teenager, was betrothed to the daughter of P. Servilius Isaurian, but after his first reconciliation with Antony, asking the soldiers of both parties an alliance of family among its leaders, joined by the sister of Anthony, Claudia, which had Fulvia P. Clodius and it was barely nubile. Disgusted with his mother then Fulvia repudiated Claudia, whom he left untouched. Scribonia married shortly afterwards, the widow of two men who had children consular and the second, but also separated from her, outraged by its perverse ways. Then contracted marriage to Livia Drusilla, who had wrested from her husband Tiberius Nero, who was pregnant, the latter the only loved and upheld with embedded perseverance.

LXIII. From Scribonia had a daughter named Julia. Livia gave him no children, despite the strong desire; was pregnant once, and gave birth prematurely. Julia first married Augustus with Marcellus, son of his sister Octavia, who had barely emerged from childhood, died Marcelo, gave in marriage to M. Agrippa, having obtained his sister-in-law to cede this, because then Agrippa was married with a daughter of Marcelo and had children. Agrippa also died, after searching long Augusto husband for his daughter, even in the order of knights, finally chose his son Tiberius, before forcing him to divorce his wife, then pregnant, and had already returned to his father. M. Antonio Augusto wrote that Julia had intended for his son Antonio, then to Cortisone, king of the Dacians, in a time when he asked for wife the daughter of the king.

LXIV. Agrippa and Julia had three grandsons, Gaius, Lucius, and Agrippa, and two granddaughters, Julia and Agrippina. He married Julia L. Paulo censor's son, and Agrippina to Germanicus, his sister's grandson. He adopted Gaius and Lucius, comparing his father Agrippa at home by Ace and balance; acostumbrólos very young to the practice of public affairs, and appointed consuls allocated to the provinces and armies. She brought up her daughter and grandchildren with great simplicity, making them learn, even the wool; prohibióles say or do anything but in front of other people and that could be recorded in the annals of his house daily. Retúvolos whatsoever of any relationship with strangers, so far as to write to L. Vinicius, dignified and distinguished young man, who had been very prudent Baias going to greet his daughter. He taught his grandchildren to read, write and count, and put special care to imitate his handwriting. They sat in the same bed to eat, travel and went before his carriage or rode around him.

LXV. Misfortune destroyed, however, confidence and joy that inspired and educated a large family with such care. He was forced to banish the two Julias, his daughter and granddaughter, stained with every infamy, losing to Gaius and Lucius in the space of eighteen months, the first to Livia, and the second in Marsala. Then he adopted in the Forum under the law curiata, his third grandson Agrippa and his son Tiberius shortly after Agrippa had to take his family because of the meanness and ferocity of his character, banishing Sorrento. Was more sensitive to the opprobrium of his men to death. Those of Gaius and Lucius was not shot down, but when he banished his daughter, revealed the reasons for the Senate in a letter that read quaestor was charged in his absence, and their disorders embarrassed him so much, that was long separated from treatment of men and deliberated whether it would even death. A freedman named Phoebus, an accomplice in her daughter in their disorders, who hanged himself on this occasion, said his father would rather be be Julia. Forbade it in his exile the use of wine and all the comforts of life, and ordered that no man, free or slave, come to her without his authorization, and without his age, height, color and even the signs and had scars on the body. After belt years, allowed the back end of the island was the mainland, and imposed less stringent conditions. But he never consented to that lived by his side as the Roman people frequently and insistently requested by his return, wished, in full assembly, daughters and wives like her. On the other Julia, his granddaughter, forbade recognize and raise the child she gave birth shortly after his exile. Moved to an island to Agrippa, that far from improving, day by day becoming more intractable, and soldiers guarding him, getting a senate that confined him for life on that island. When they spoke in the presence of Agrippa or some of the Julias, always exclaim with a sigh: Blessed is he who lives and dies with no children and no wife v (62) and his family always called her three tumors and three cancers.

LXVI. Not to friends easily, but once given his, it was forever. Appreciate every friend I knew in merit and virtue, and could also support the small defects and lesser faults. Only two men can be cited who incurred their hatred, after granting him his friendship. Salvidienus Rufus and Cornelius Gallus, who rose from the humblest condition, the one to the consulate, the other to the prefecture of Egypt. At first, as punishment for their ingratitude and wickedness, denied entry at home and in the provinces he commanded, in the second, trying to stir up trouble, handed it to the justice of the Senate, and when the charges of his accusers and the decrees of judges also determined to be death, Augustus praised the zeal that had been deployed to avenge him, but shed tears and complaining of his greatness that was the only one who was not allowed to control his anger against his friends. Rich and powerful, others were friends of Augustus to the end of his life the first of his order, despite some troubles that passed between them. Thus, to cite many examples, M. Agrippa once lost patience, discretion and Maecenas: the first, slight suspicion of coolness and under the pretext that he preferred to Marcelo, left everything behind and retired to Mytilene, the other told his wife a secret Terentia State: the discovery he had just done in the conspiracy of Murena. In exchange for his friendship demanded adherence Augustus did not even finish in the grave. Indeed, even if very little greedy inheritance and never accept for who was not intimate with him, very carefully considered the last measures of his friends, and did not hide his disgust when he tried with little honor and liberality, nor its content when responding to hope the testimonies of gratitude and affection. As far as parties to the legacy and inheritance left him parents, accustomed to resign immediately for the children and reintegrate them if they were children, adding a gift the day he wore the toga virile or married .

LXVII. As lord and head properly managed to combine the severity with gentleness and mercy, and honored with his confidence to many of his freedmen, as Enceladus Licinio and others. Simply put chains to Cosmos, a slave of his who had murmured against him. He walked one day with his steward Diomedes, and this, with an impulse of terror, pushed him in front of a boar that rushed upon them; Augustus chose to consider him a coward villain, and as there was treason, was the first to mock the I had run some risk. The prince himself was killed Proclus, his freedmen, whom he loved deeply, when he was convinced of his adultery with midwives; sent to Talo breaking legs, his secretary, who had received five hundred money to communicate a letter, and did cast a river with a stone around his neck and slaves to tutor her son Gaius, who, taking advantage of his illness and death in their government committed acts of greed and tyranny.

LXVIII. Several young opprobrium from his reputation tarnished. Sex. Pompey tried him effeminate. M. Antonio blamed him have bought the price of his disgrace the adoption of his uncle, Lucius, the brother of Antony, claimed that after he has given to Caesar the flower of his youth, he sold it again in Spain for three hundred Hirtius A. thousand sesterces, adding that he used to burn the hair on the legs with walnut shell fire, to keep them softer. The village, a day at the theater, applied to transport of evil glee, this verse designating a priest of Cybele playing the tambourine:

They measure, ut cinoedus orbem temperat digit? (62bis).

LXIX. Nobody, not even his own friends, many deny that commits adultery, and only seek to excuse him, saying he was not so much by passion as by policy and in order to learn, through women, the secrets of his opponents. M. Antonio, not content to accuse the precipitation of her marriage to Livia, even charged that ushered in a feast of the banquet table to a room next to the wife of a consular officer, the husband being present, and when brought Again, she had red ears and hair in disarray. Add to Scribonia chided her for not being able to bear the haughtiness of a concubine, that his friends were looking for married women and nubile maidens to be have certain conditions, and he examined them as slaves for sale in the market Torani. At a time when there was still his enemy, Antonio wrote him familiarly:

What has changed? What is my mistress a queen? It's my wife, not yesterday, but already for nine years. Do you have only to Livia? I'm sure at the time you read my letter you've already enjoyed Tertulla or Terentila or Rufila or Titiscuria Salvia, or perhaps all of them. What matter where or woman who you want?

LXX. There was much talk also of the secret houses, commonly called "The Banquet of the twelve gods", in the diners wore them gods and goddesses, representing Apollo and Augustus. Antonio in his letters named and bitterly criticized all contained in such feasts, on which an anonymous author made these known lines:

Quum, primum istorum conduxit mensa choragum,
Sexque deos vidit Mallia, sexque ideas;
Impious Caesar dum Phoebi mendacia Luddites,
Dum nova divorum coenat adultery
Omnia se a terris tunc numina declinarunt,
Fugit et ipse aurata Juppiter throne (623).

The scarcity which prevailed in Rome became more outrageous of these orgies, saying in public the next morning that the gods had eaten all the grain and that Caesar was indeed Apollo, but Apollo tormentor, whose name is revered to this god in a neighborhood of the city. Also complains that the desire of Augustus by antique furniture and vessels of Corinth, and his passion for the game. For this reason, at the time of its proscriptions, wrote at the foot of his statue:

Pater Argentario, ego Corinthiarius (624);

because he was accused of having banned for many citizens to take over their glasses of Corinth in Sicily during the war was run this epigram:

Postquam a rictus classe perdidit ships,
Ut aliquando vineat, aleam regular Luddite (625).