Rome: Reaction and Revolution to the outbreak of war Italics

The power of the Senate seemed restored. But just after the bloody suppression of reform attempts was clear to everyone that the Roman nobility was no longer in condition of its governance capability. If she could have freely obey the inclinations of his heart, would have eliminated the hated certainly all innovations. But this did not succeed but a very limited extent. Thus the agrarian law which on one hand put a brake no picnic for the inalienability clause, to the greed of large landowners and the other also harmed the personal freedom of the new owners, was not abrogated, but was removed entirely ineffective. First it was permitted the sale of lots created by that law. Moreover, the inalienability was an anachronism at the time. It was not possible to save an ideal survived, as the state farmer italic, and so came back soon impersonation and the impoverishment of smallholders. A second law became private property all state land held by individuals, with the exception of large areas of Campania, which continued to lease land. Only a tax, whose proceeds would be distributed among the Roman proletariat in the form of subsidies on goods, should remember the previous status, but few years later, exactly a decade after tribune Gaius Gracchus, that contribution was also suppressed. However, the Senate had to keep grain distributions. Gaius Gracchus had at least demanding of the people. The distributions of grain soon became the hands of rulers in a secure environment to attract and appeasement. Occasionally the party of the Senate to take the initiative to increase the quota to be distributed, while this generosity could find, as suspected, the opposition from Democrats, a tribune, who later had to talk a lot himself, Marius began his career with dignity to oppose such moves of the nobility. Also the class of gentlemen said their new privileges, especially with regard to juries. In general, the reaction was essentially conditioned by the momentary lack of heads in the ranks of his opponents. The main result was that the people back to the Senate left a free hand in the affairs of government, thus renewing the old favorite of class and caste. But this situation should not last long. While foreign policy hitherto been considered by the popular party area reserved to the senatorial class, the new head of the proletariat, Marius managed to break precisely in this area, the authority and reputation of the old nobility. In North Africa, in Numidia, a pretender to the throne, Jugurtha, had driven the country's legitimate rulers, who were under the protection of Rome, while northern Italy since the existence of the state threatened an invasion of Germanic tribes -the Cimbrians and Teutons, prelude to the transmigration of peoples. In the war against Jugurtha (111-105 BC AD). consuls general and emerged from the old nobility had exceeded, by venality and incapacity, all believable bounds. Jugurtha could rightly exclaim, during a sojourn in Rome: "Oh venal city, what would you sell if you suddenly find who you buy!". And when two generations after the historian Sallust, Caesar's friend and assistant, wanted to show the colors more vivid the depravity of the aristocratic regime, wrote a history of war yugurtina. Also in the wars against the Germans (113 to 101 d C.) there was dirty business, for example the removal of spoils of war by the commander in chief, but was, above all, the ineptitude of the generals that put Rome in the greatest of dangers. And in both wars returned to Rome, crowned with the laurels of victory, the new man of confidence of the people, Gaius Marius, the same one whose political career was initially greeted the return of the Gracchi. A son of the village, the scion of a poor family of customers on the bandwagon, hitherto considered the exclusive possession of the high noble families! Even though the Numidian war victory could have been quite lucky and work of his courageous predecessor, Metellus, in those against it had been really Cimbrians El Salvador to Rome, and rightly greeted popular gratitude " third founder of Rome. But in military camps had changed Mario fatal. There was nothing left of skillful politician and thoughtful, as revealed, however, in the office of tribune. The strong scent of laurel warriors had clouded his clear intelligence, to the point that from now on you can not find it trace of political ideas. Forgot your origin and their democratic duties, wasting their energies in a vain and vacuous cult of personality. With joy the people had led him to the heights of power, showing, with rare constancy, in perilous times, their full confidence with continuous re-election. Actually, it was a case of seeing the unprecedented rise in the year 100, completed and wars against the Germans, for the sixth time, to the consulate. This election was nothing more than an exhortation of the people to break the power of the enemy within, the party of the Senate, as he had already made with the external enemy. The spiritual leaders of the popular party, the Tribune Apuleius Saturninus and the praetor Servilius Glaucia, hoping to realize their great program to reflect the splendor that radiated from the figure of Mario. While Mario was missing almost everything that could make him a Graco and the very clear understanding of the entire state machinery, the insights into the factors of social crisis and the selfless dedication to the political function, provided, however , means more powerful than their predecessors. Under Mario was made completely transforming the citizen army into a mercenary army, he had introduced, by special commissioners to the conscription, enlistment system well structured and with such an army Mario believed to have also unconditionally to their policy plans inside. His immediate ambition was to ensure that force and, leaning on her, making the dream of his vanity, the sole power, this idea already floated in the air as a solution to the political complications. The leaders of the commons, Saturninus and Glaucia, endowed with great political skills, they could not in any way have a position like that of Mario and were therefore in a particularly willing to pave the way for the former. They knew that Mario would have been, as a representative figure of inestimable value, but in politics - social would have had to push him like a puppet. Saturnino was understood that the full extent of the Gracchus ideas and thought-feasible that after the victories of Mario. Already in his first tribune proposed that the lands conquered in war yugurtina be distributed to the conquerors, the Marian army veterans, and just in lots of 25 hectares.   In love with his idea, did not respect or another tribune's veto on the contrary, he instigated against the people, who in a street riot killed him with stones. In general, Saturninus was a revolutionary in the true and full sense of the word. Also his second election to the Tribune won only by killing the opponent candidate. In his second tribune Saturninus introduced a draft settlement much more radical. He proposed the establishment of settlements in Greece, Macedonia, Sicily, and above all, in Gaul, where the Germanic tribes had just been evacuated following the victories of Marius and where, moreover, already existed for 18 years a Roman colony , Narbonne (modern Narbonne). The necessary equipment (utensils, food, seeds) must be purchased with the goods confiscated from aristocrats convicted for embezzlement and graft. As the execution of this gigantic project was to be entrusted to Mario, especially since most of the settlers were to be his old soldiers-Roman citizens and confederates, one could have for a long time to become master of Rome, or rather that, through him the match! FDR, whose most essential purpose was to decentralize power. The main error committed by Saturnino was tactical. Their intentions are expressed in their colonization law so blatantly that even the circles that accompany Gaius Gracchus began to falter. Insurance was really only the Marian army veterans, who preferably should enjoy the immediate benefits of the new law and which could not offend the least possible dominant position of General so revered by them. But the knights and urban proletarians were poorly compliant with the plan of Saturnino. The alignment of the provinces would have severely damaged the splendid and lucrative business of gentlemen. Moreover, the proletariat of the capital paid much attention to the speakers of the nobility, when they painted her idle life in Rome, with its deliveries of grains and their games in circuses (panem et circus ") as the ideal worthy of a Roman Emperor and, conversely, rural life in the distant provinces as miserable and dark. In his plan, had also agreed Saturnino Confederate Italics, and this was enough to excite in the extreme nervousness of the crowd, which knew how to exploit their opponents as the best means of agitation. Saturninus, as soon as Graco, trying to capture the favor of the masses with a new law demagogic, reducing the price of grain to be distributed among the needy in 1115 near the market price. Moreover, on this point the aristocrats were always willing to try and compromise. When the Assembly would pass a popular vote on the colonization laws and grains and from several parties presented the veto, Saturnino ignored all protests. There were quarrels and stormy scenes. Saturnino announced the acceptance of law and to complete the victory won in the Senate to swear the new law "pro capite, nominally. A single senator, the predecessor of Marius in the war numidica, Metellus, had the courage to refuse the oath and chose exile, although some clauses that act to smother most of its effectiveness. The terms "very significant for the situation, came from the same Mario. Mario was not consistent and a man had become a selfish ambition. Balancing between the two parties hoped to reach the goal more likely. His conduct ambiguous in the matter of the oath was very significantly disturbed the relations between him and his allies Saturninus and Glaucia. However, there was agreement on the nominations for the following year, with, as, indeed, was as usual, ignore the Constitution. The praetor Glaucia presented, contrary to the provisions of the law, his candidature for the consulate, while Saturninus should reoccupy the tribune. To which files have to resort to raise your credit Saturninus to the people as evidenced by the appearance of "false Graco, who introduced himself as the son of Gaius Gracchus. But having the family of the Gracchi indignantly rejected the impostor, the crowd greeted with indescribable enthusiasm wanted and chose the name Saturnino tribunes and the false Graco. But the opposition candidate of Glaucia, a moderate Democrat, Cayo Memi, was most likely to succeed and could not be removed otherwise, Glaucia had him killed in the Forum the same day of the election. This certainly was not the path that would lead to the triumph of the revolution. The Senate declared a state of siege and called the citizens to arms. Mario himself, as consul, he had to take action against their own allies, unless a declaration of solidarity with their acts of violence. On December 10 (100 d C), the day the newly elected tribunes should be operationalized, violent fighting broke out on the streets of Rome. For the revolution fought mostly veterans, but lacked an efficient direction, so the bourgeois parties triumphed in coalition. The urban populace was not inclined to side with the revolution, because this time leaders also believed they could achieve their ends without the necessary concessions to the Confederates. Saturninus, Glaucia, the "false Graco" and many had died, while Mario, for having abandoned his old friends, he was exposed to the general contempt and fell into political impotence. Saturnino-laws from the constitutional point of view certainly avoidable, were repealed on the grounds that were the product of violence. Senate and cavalry were convinced that they had finally won again against the revolution. Mario was considered dead, the other leaders what they really were and the enemies of reform had the reassuring feeling that the problem of the Confederates, inextricably linked to the transformation of the state would not have ever lost his unpopularity with the urban proletariat Rome, which was the deciding factor in street fights. The old gang back possession of the directors and, with the exception of the judiciary given the knights in the conditions and limitations we have described, very little was changed from the days before the Gracchi. Some insightful another member from among the nobles, who had learned something in the days of terror of the revolution, trying to obtain a more moderate exercise of political power but for most revolutionary events had passed without a trace, and were mainly knights (capitalists) who argued that morbid situation with his insatiable greed for profit. The Criminal Chamber, established to protect the provincials, had become, through the work of the Knights, an instrument of ruthless system of exploitation. A significant attempt to establish social peace was made some ten years later also a member of the highest aristocracy of Rome, Marcus Livius Drusus, whose father had risen against Gaius Gracchus as tribune. Like all his time, he also warned that only the sole power could provide a solution to problems. With mingled feelings of pride and idealism, was regarded as the noblest of the citizens and as such destined to occupy a predominant position. To the bewilderment of political circles is characteristic then being given great importance to this political art aficionado. Just elected tribune under the protection of the nobility, introduced at once to the popular assembly a varied amount of laws that would bring something to every citizen. The result was, naturally, in the end almost all citizens, with the exception of some doctrinaire liberal - conservative well intentioned, were against him. Drusus thought to reconcile the nobility and chivalry, the jury returning to the Senate, which stripped him Gaius Gracchus, but adding 300 new members from among the knights. But neither the former class of senators-the big landowners were willing to accept such strong competition, nor the gentleman wanted to be immobilized in their businesses by income in the Senate. The proletariat Drusus gave a law of settlement and other grains. All state lands that remained in Italy and Sicily were to be divided. The constraint on land set-test Livius Drusus had not understood the central thought of Gaius Gracchus and Saturninus. Also at this point his main aspiration was to address momentary feelings and desires. The town was, of course, more inclined toward Italian colonies - Sicel that served overseas. As regards the distribution of grains, Drusus proposed to become free, which over time would have required huge sums of money and even financial ruin, while the measure was, however, very pleasant and appealing to the ear the crowd. With the support of it, actually managed to pass Drusus their projects, but not that on this occasion to violate the Constitution. But Livius Drusus had to admit that his work would have been worthless and impossible if both had not gotten a solution to the problem Italic, which was becoming more urgent. The more he thought crystallized in the regency of his staff, the more he was forced to put his finger on the pulse. The colonization law significantly aggravated the situation, fearing, rightly, the Confederates that the cost of implementation should have been borne by them. Drusus, feeling very secure in his position before the crowd, he dared to propose the most radical: the incorporation of all the Italians in the Roman citizenship. The motion was not free from selfishness. Drusus Confederate required the following oath: "To friends and enemies to those whom it considers Livius Drusus as his friends and enemies, respectively, give life, parents and children, if this was advantageous to Drusus and his confederates, if rights civilians were achieved under the draft Druse, regarded as the homeland and Drusus Rome as the greatest benefactor. " This Drusus made very plain that he wanted to make sure the Italians in a supporting force for personal power. The italics were in complete agreement with those of Drusus, which awaited his salvation, and when during the year he fell ill function, rose everywhere prayers and public votes for their health. But before the bill became law, Drusus was murdered (91 BC d, C). The Roman plebs did not cry the death of the Tribune, despite demagogic laws and the government did not even need to look at the reputed murderer. Murder and manslaughter and appeared as usual and permissible means in political struggles. The nobility and the capital until revealed unequivocally that had waited the appropriate time to end all the work of Drusus. The laws of the slain were canceled because of the events that occurred in the unconstitutional act of approval and, to appease the crowd, the courts proceeded against Druze friends, accusing them of having instigated the Confederates against the metropolis, which produced always the desired effect, as the urban populace believed to friends of those as his bitterest enemies.